Simulation Rules

Leadership
Since the culture of Kingdom of Benin was gerontocratic, the Oba will be an older male from our class. The oldest living male of the lineage is the head and has authority over everyone in his lineage.
The Oba will have a council and warriors to protect the land. One council member will be in charge of relations with other cultures (soft power).
Cultural greeting and gestures
Formal greeting: Extend your right hand and grasp your right elbow with your left hand and shake with knees slightly bent.
Informal greeting: Shake hands while adding a snap using our middle finger and thumb of the other person’s hand.
Group greeting: Clasp hands above our heads and shake them.
Anger: Grab left elbow with right hand, extend arm out in front of you, and shake fist up and down by bending your elbow
Proxemics
We will stand close to each other and others during interactions and discussion.
Gender Roles
Women are subsidiary to men. They do not hold political office, they are expected to raise children and prepare food. In conversation, a woman will be respectful. A woman will not start or lead a conversation with anyone outside of our culture or high-ranking member within the tribe. If there is not enough food for our culture, the women will be first to starve.
Trade Partners
We will trade and form alliances with cultures with similar values.
Trade required a high amount of respect. If a trader was rude or stole something from a Benin trader, all trade was halted and a boycott would be placed on the trader until the transgressor paid them back and issued a formal apology to those affected.
Mobility
Restricted to walking and small canoes on waterways

Hard Power Estimation: 5

Rituals


Dance



A major dance in Benin, known as the Cone Dance, is a personal way of teaching social patterns, values and praise in tribes and societies. This form of dance can also be accompanied by solo singing through the use of the human voice. With dance and singing rituals, individuals can also be know to criticize certain members in their tribes if the other is not doing their duties to help out others, or if there is hostility within. Also along with dancing in Benin, a major factor of personal relationships comes with this practice, such as a high concentration of sexuality and also the act of courting others in the tribe. Mostly younger men take part in these rituals, from the ages of 20-25, and usually are competing for rights with others to court the opposite sex.


Voodoo



The practice of voodoo in Benin is not only a form of a ritual, but also it is considered a religion as of 1996. This form of religion literally translates into "spirit", and involves many dances and also animal sacrifice including spells not only on the specific animal, but also other humans. Voodoo is commonly mistaken as a form of torture, and also is thought to be 'sticking pins and needles into dolls", however this could not be any further from the truth. The religion of voodoo can be practiced in many avenues, but most commonly it is used to bless young marriages and also to help cure the ill or even sick infants.

Sacrifice


The art and practice of sacrifice in Benin is well known throughout the rest of the world, and mostly was used as a form of giving to the Gods as an act of worship, and also a wish for "better times to come". The individuals of tribes would not only sacrifice animals such as chickens and other livestock, but sometimes would also choose to sacrifice other members if the need was felt necessary. The people of Benin believed that "Minkisi", know as the spirits of the dead, were to receive the sacrificed as a way to see the living to a better chance of life and also in hopes that the evil spirits would not do any harm. For the most part, these sacrifices were performed at marriages and funerals in order to wish a new couple luck in upcoming years, or the dead a safe trip into the after-life. But as a known good luck practice, these sacrifices were a large part of harvesting their crops, due to the need for food and also the will to survive.


<Plankensteiner, Barbara. Benin Kings and Rituals, Court Arts from Nigeria.
New York, New York, 2007

<Leazinger, Elsy. The Art Of Black Africa.
Rizozoli International Publications, inc., New York, 1976

<Dark, Philip J.C.. An Introduction to Benin Art and Technology.
Oxford University Press, London, 1973

<Sadler, Michael E.. Arts of West Africa.
Oxford University Press, London, 1935

<Thompson, Robert Farris. Black Gods and Kings.
Indiana University Press, London, 1971



Language


Describe the language(s) spoken in your culture

• French is the main language (Levinson, 1998)
• 54 tribal languages throughout Benin (Lewis,2009)
• English is taught as one of the two foreign languages in Benin (Sciences, 2010)
• Literacy rate is 39%; Men- 53% Women- 25% (OWNO, 2010)
• On the coast is it very common to be able to speak English in the Tourist areas but the further you go into the villages French is the only language spoken

History of Benin Language
Looking back through the centuries West Benin language truly came from the slave trade. This event played a huge role in the slaves that were scattered within the European countries forcing them together and they in turn developed their languages. Yoruba was the language spoken back in the 15th century of Benin. It comes from the Nigeria area and continued to carry on into parts of the Middle East. There is still evidence of this language in West Africa today, throughout the people and their culture (Chigere, 2001). There are around 54 different tribal languages that run through all of Benin. During the slave trade African’s were taken on the slave ships yet could not speak to one another because their languages varied from village to village. Once they were on American soil Ibo, Fon, Mandinka people were able to talk using their similar languages (Carter, 2009). The Fon language came from the south west of Nigeria to the costal lines of Benin (Wickens & Lowe, 2008). Languages were very similar which made it easier for the slaves to figure out what each other was saying even when they were not from the same village. Many of the languages were very similar to French due to the French occupation that was occurring in that area and the French that were taking the slaves from Africa. Benin people made up about 33.4% of the French enslaved, resulting in them learning the French language and then once free many times returning to their homeland where they took back the French language and this is why today Benin has the majority of French speaking villages (Condon & Mufwene, 1993). They used many of the different tribal languages along the trade routes the main language being, Twi (Wickens & Lowe, 2008).
The Ewe people settled in two different areas one of which was Benin. Yoruba was spoken by the Ewe people in the 11th century moving around Benin in order to find food and water that they needed to survive. The main language century ago was Yoruba. They do not use words to separate gender such as “he”, “she”, and “it”. When you were born you were called “okonri” for man and “obiri” for women. All nouns in Yoruba start with a vowel, there are very few that start other ways and in that case they are foreign born words (Ellis, 1894). Their language was very musical and accents made this possible. The alphabet contains the letters, a, b, d, e, f, g, gb, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, w, y. There has never been an article discovered in the Yoruba language and that is why they do not refer to people by gender. Their language consists of all the same aspects that English has today such as nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs (Crowther, 1852). The grammar varies all through the language and it is not always used the same with every word. Different variances pertain to how the word is said that affect the meaning.

Sayings in FON! (Sciences, 2010)
· Good morning AH-FON ghan-jee-ah
· How are you? AH-DOH ghan-jee-ah
· Thank you AH-WAH-nou
· Good bye OH-dah-boh

· Describe the language's key characteristics? (Is it tonal? click? unique grammar? etc.?)

• Benin languages take on form from both English and French although they transcribe every sound with a separate letter rather than using diacritics or digraphs (NJK, 2008)

Describe any notable rituals of communication? (special handshakes, gestures, etc.?

In Benin, no one is a stranger everyone is greeted. Strangers are usually greeted with a glass of water and if it is meal time they will be expect to eat. They must kneel to elders and members of high social status in the community in a sign of respect (Beninese, 2010). Sodabi is given to guests and expect to drink; contains a combination of sugar and eggs. (Kraus & Reid, 36). People greet one another by clapping their hands and saying "ko ko ko", person responds saying who's there? then the other says "me" the houseowner must then know by their voice if they know the vistor or if they are a guest (Kraus & Reid, 36).When people know each other very well they will add a snap into their hand shake People greet elders and high in high status by grabbing their right elbow and shaking hands with their right hand while being bent at the knees (Kraus & Reid, 36). Large groups people will grasp their hands together over their heads and shake them and that is a sign of greeting(Kraus & Reid, 36).

Describe any special forms of communication, such as special types of speech for ritual or political purposes? Any special entertainment styles of communication (such as poetry)? Voodoo is very common in West Benin. It is followed by around 60% of the population. It is a way for them to connect with spirits or give them gifts such as animal sacrifice. It gives them a way to communicate with their thoughts and emotions. (Robinson, 2010) Voodoo in Fon mean 'god', 'spirit', 'power' (Palin, 2006) Largest religion group in Benin (Robinson, 2010)


How we will use gestures in our culture

• Main Greeting
  • shake hands while adding a snap using our middle finger and thumb of the other persons hand
• Greeting eachother in a large group, our symbolic greeting so people know we are all from the same place
  • clasp hands above our heads and shake them
  • 
    
• When excited we will...
  • dance, shake body and arms downwards towards the ground

When we are offended/upset

• grab left elbow with right hand and shake left forearm up and down quickly

Beninese. (2010). Retrieved September 11, 2010, from Every Culture: http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Afghanistan-to-Bosnia-Herzegovina/Beninese.html
Carter, C. J. (2009). Freedom in my heart: voices from the United States National Slavery Museum. National Geographic.
Chigere, N. H. (2001). Foreign missionary background and indigenous evangelization in Igboland. Berlin: Transaction Publishers.
Condon, N., & Mufwene, S. (1993). Africanisms in Afro-American language varieties . Athens: University of Georgia.
Crowther, S. (1852). A grammar of the Yoruba language. London: Seeleys.
Ellis, A. B. (1894). The Yoruba-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa. London: Chapman and Hall.
Kraus, E., & Reid, F. Benin: Discover the Real Benin. 2010.
Levinson, D. (1998). Ethnic Groups Worldwide. Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press.
Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version:http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Benin
NJK (Ed.). (2008). Republic of Benin. Retrieved September 10, 2010, from Benin Republic West Africa: http://www.solarnavigator.net/geography/benin.htm
OWNO (Ed.). (2010, August 4). Benin- Republic of Benin. Retrieved September 10, 2010, from Nations Online: http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/benin.htm
Palin, M. (2006). Benin. Guilford, Connecticut: Bradt Travel Guides Ltd.
Robinson, B. (2010). VODUN. Retrieved September 14, 2010, from Religions of the World: http://www.religioustolerance.org/voodoo.htm
Sciences, P. A. (Ed.). (2010). Facts About the Republic of Benin: Official Document. Retrieved September 10, 2010, from African Studies Center: http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Country_Specific/benin_EDoc.html
Wickens, G. E., & Lowe, P. (2008). The baobabs: pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia . Springer Science.



Education and Child Rearing In Benin the education system is modeled after the French. School is free and required by the law. According to the law a child must stay in school for seven years starting at the age of five. One thing holding children back from going to school is the cost. If a family cannot afford to send their child to school that child will not attend school. Most parents sacrifice a lot to send their children to school because an education is seen as the key to social achievement.
Children are taught that they should always respect their elders and must be obedient. Children do not have many toys so games are used to amuse them. Gender roles are taught to boys and girls at a very young age because it is especially important for the girl to learn their roles. There are about 8% of children that work as workers or laborers on plantations and as domestic servants.



Work Cited 1. "Education - Benin - System." Encyclopedia of the Nations - Information about Countries of the World, United Nations, and World Leaders. Web. 28 Sept. 2010. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Benin-EDUCATION.html. 2. "Culture of Benin - Traditional, History, People, Clothing, Women, Beliefs, Food, Customs, Family, Social, Dress, Marriage, Men, Life, Population, Religion, Rituals, History and Ethnic Relations." Countries and Their Cultures. Web. 29 Sept. 2010. http://www.everyculture.com/A-Bo/Benin.html. 3. Egharevba, Jacob U. A Short History of Benin,. Ibadan: Ibadan UP, 1968. Print. 4. Morgan, Stephen L.; Morgan, Williams R.. Inequality Across Societies: Families, Schools and Persisting Stratification…Elsevier B.V., 2004. Print. 5. Kurian, George Thimas. Encyclopedia of the World’s Nations and Cultures, Fact on File, Inc., 2007. Print.





Gender
Description of genders and main characteristics
Male and female are the only two genders recognized in Benin. Males are the dominant gender and females are considered subsidiary to, or even slaves of, men.

Main Gender roles In the past, farming was the basis for the economy, so families and villages were shaped around the land. Gender roles were largely defined by what tasks were assigned to men and women with respect to farming. The men in the family were responsible for clearing land, planting and training vines, women would weed and take care of subsidiary crops, and both would help harvest. Along with helping with crops, women were expected to provide food and prepare meals for herself, her children and her husband and to raise her children. Because these roles were so firm, it was considered shameful for a man to attend to his own subsidiary crops, so he usually did not, even if he was not married (Bradbury 1973: 154).

Rituals relating to gender Rituals vary between tribes, but many rituals exist for the transition between being a child and an adult. In one tribe, boys enter into a competition with anothre boy where each has a sharpened stick and hits the other boy 3 times as hard as he can. The boy who hits the hardest and flinches the least is declared the winner and enters manhood. For girls, this process of becoming a women involves getting face tattoos that is very painful and very long. If she cries or shows her pain, she may have to delay the process and become a woman later. A video of these rituals in Benin can be seen below (National Geographic 2007).
The following pictures show a boy's (now a man's) back after he has been through his initiation competition and a woman's face that has been tattooed.

Political, spiritual and domestic power
Again, the men in Benin culture hold the most power. Women do not hold political office, so the only way they have influence is through the men in their family. Also, because men are considered the head of their families, they are responsible for the spiritual well-being of their families and are also held responsible for the behavior of the other members fo their families. Because the man of the family is the head, the actions of his family reflect on him and he has to take responsibility if one of them is not behaving well (Bradbury 1973: 155, 182).

Family Structure In the past, farming was the basis for the economy, so families and villages were shaped around the land. Gender roles were largely defined by what tasks were assigned to men and women with respect to farming. The men in the family were responsible for clearing land, planting and training vines, women would weed and take care of subsidiary crops, and both would help harvest. Along with helping with crops, women were expected to provide food and prepare meals for herself, her children and her husband and to raise her children. Because these roles were so firm, it was considered shameful for a man to attend to his own subsidiary crops, so he usually did not, even if he was not married (Bradbury 1973: 154). Besides the influence of farming, family structure was also influenced by gender. Women and children were considered slaves of men, so men held the vast majority of power in Benin’s society. The strongest relational bond was between a man and his oldest son, so all of a man’s inheritance was passed to his oldest son. This means that a man’s house would go to his oldest son and that son would have to provide for the women in the family. Also, polygamy was practiced, so a man may have been responsible for many wives and sets of children. This also means that women were dependent on the men in their family, so if their husband died, they would live with a brother, son, or other male family member. This created living situations with multiple generations in one house. Within a house, the men were the ones who are given the sleeping quarters (Bradbury 1973:155).

Random facts

• Later, women were allowed to hold jobs at the king's palace that would typically be jobs for men. This included palace guard and these positions allowed women to better their circumstances (Newton 1981: 93).
• Although women have the same constitutional rights as men now, there is still a gap in opportunity. About 42% of girls are enrolled in primary school while about 84% of boys are (Allen 1988: 18).

How we can use this in the simulation
Men should be the only ones to deal with other countries because they are the ones with political power.

Media/Technology:

What tools do they have and how are they used?
Residents of Benin in the 16th Century hand carved statues and ivory that were then traded for profit. In this century Benin was introduced to Europeans with ships that “astonished the local inhabitants” and their art was sold to museums across the globe. I found a photo of one of these such bronze sculptures, also known as the Benin Plaques, in a museum that is of the Oba. It was very hard to find information about the tools they use, but in the sculpture, “the Oba is holding a ceremonial axe.” The Oba was a very important figure to Beninese because they also sing about the Oba.








What technologies do they have for transport?
Benin’s residents didn’t “have a written language until the Portuguese arrived.” They learned the language from the traders, both how to speak it and how to write it. (Mr.Donn.org) Presently the official language is French, but there are several tribal languages that also are prominent, including “Fon, Mina, Goun, and Yoruba in the south; Nagot, Bariba, and Dendi in the north.”
Communication with other countries and the world is slowly gaining towards First World Country levels. They have planes, roads, trains, ports, and telephone Infrastructures are performing more than 6,000 lines with direct contact with the external world. They also have a fully operational postal service.

What technologies do they have for communication?
Before the Europeans arrived on their ships, trade with Europe was through middle men, who transported “goods carried across the Sahara by camel.”
Family Life
I. Kinship is a term used to describe relationships, usually family relationships and were the “foundations of social organization” (Asante & Asante 1985: 54). In traditional Benin culture, kinship is divided into two categories: Consanguinity and Affinity (Olaniyan 1982: 28)

A. Consanguinity describes blood relationships, and it can be broken down into the categories of descent (ties throughout generations) and filiation (parents and children) (Olaniyan 1982: 28). In this society, patrilineal lineage is practiced, meaning that lineage is traced through males on the father’s side (Olaniyan 1982: 28). The oldest living male of the lineage is the head and has authority over everyone in his lineage. (Olaniyan 1982: 28) When several separate lineages claim the same ancestor, they are said to be part of the same clan; these ancient ancestors are highly respected throughout the clan and, in some way, “wield authority over living members” (Olaniyan 1982: 28).

B. Affinity describes the bonds of marriage, of which the ultimate aim is reproduction to continue the lineage (Olaniyan 1982: 29). Marriage is not just a contract between two individuals; it is a contract between two families (Igbafe 1979: 19). The lineage head was responsible for arranging the exogamous marriages. meaning that people married outside of their descent groups (Olaniyan 1982: 28). Just after the girl’s birth, the suitor would pay a brideprice or would offer himself for brideservice to the girl’s family (Olaniyan 1982: 29). Brideprices could be currency or livestock, and brideservice indicates the man would work for the girl’s family in place of giving material goods (Olaniyan 1982: 29). Brideservice may even mean that after being married, the husband and wife would live with the wife’s father while the husband would work for the father until 3 children were born (Olaniyam 1982: 29). Polygyny, marriage of one man to many women, was practiced, however it could be limited to the sex ratio of the villagers living near each other or by economics, if the man could not afford a brideprice for multiple wives; if a man did have multiple wives, that could be taken as a sign of wealth (Olaniyan 1982: 29, 30). Larger families were needed so that there was a labor force that could help with the farming (Igbafe 1979: 21). There were sororal marriages (“two sisters marry the same man”), nonsororal marriages (two women who were not related married the same man), and the preferred kind of marriage was between cousins (Olaniyan 1982: 30). Each wife was in charge of cooking for herself and her children, the wives took turns cooking for their husband (Bradbury 1973: 155).

Interesting Traditional Benin Wedding video links: (be sure to read the poster's notes underneath the video screen)


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWN5f9AOOoU&feature=related


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xn0Ziu7cofA&NR=1


-http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ia_z4l1dgxY&feature=related


-http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U2ctbVn9oUU&feature=related

i.The sanctity of marriage was very important, and “divorce” was extremely rare, as it could detract from the reputation of the two families involved (Igbafe 1979: 20). If a man committed adultery with a higher authority’s wife, his punishment was death or banishment (Igbafe 1979: 22). If a man committed adultery with a lower authority’s wife or any other wife, he had to pay a fine and “compensatory damages” to help pay for the “purification rites” that had to be conducted (Igbafe 1979: 22).

II. Extended families were very important in traditional culture and each served an “interdependent function” to help keep the family going (Asante & Asante 1985: 54). Extended families lived in housing compounds with multiple rooms under one roof that were built around a center courtyard that had alters to gods in the middle (Bailey, Copperwaite, Doyle, Johnston, & Wood 2000: 84). Co-wives would have their own rooms in the hut and would live with their children there (Olaniyan 1982: 30). The materials used to construct the compounds were mud, for thick walls; wood, to serve as beams and posts; and straw and palm leaves, for the thatched roofs (Bailey, Copperwaite, Doyle, Johnston, & Wood 2000: 219). Since Benin’s traditional society was a farming society, they most likely would have stayed in one location. Not moving around may have contributed to the development of polygyny and extended families living together as part of the culture.

III. Family Connections Children were considered to “belong” to the father’s family; however, if the man didn’t pay a brideprice or service to the bride’s family, their children belonged to the woman’s family (Bailey, Copperwaite, Doyle, Johnston, & Wood 2000: 84). A husband was in charge of his family’s material and spiritual well-being; making regular offerings at his paternal acestor shrine was one way of doing this (Bradbury 1973: 155). Because women were married at a younger age than men, they were more likely to become widows (Olaniyan 1982: 30). The dead husband’s brother could “inherit” the widow (referred to as levirate), and if the widow chose to remarry, she could not marry outside of her dead husband’s family (Olaniyan 1982: 30, Igbafe 1979: 23).

Interesting video of a traditional lullaby: http://www.tangle.com/view_video?viewkey=5b663520ccbc2581b799

IV.What this means for the simulation is that guys could walk around with multiple girls, indicating he has multiple wives (polygyny), or groups of “families” could walk around together, indicating extended families. We could also choose one male and make him the lineage head and have some way of signifying that to the other cultures.
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SUBSISTENCE by: Mickelle Schneider

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Exchange
the act of giving something in return for something received (wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn)

Resources Available for Exchange.

Country	Agricultural	Mineral
BENIN	coffee, cocoa, yams	petroleum
BURKINA FASO	ground nuts, cotton, sorghum	manganese, limestone
COTE D'IVOIRE	coffee, cocoa, timber, maize, rice	petroleum, diamonds, manganese
GAMBIA	groundnuts, millet, sorghum, rice
GHANA	cocoa, cassava, groundnuts, maize	gold, bauxite, manganese
GUINEA	rice, coffee, pineapples, cassava	bauxite, iron ore, uranium
GUINEA- BISSAU	rice, maize, cassava, fish	bauxite, phosphates
LIBERIA	rubber, timber, rice, cassava	iron ore, diamonds
MALI	cotton, livestock, millet, rice	gold, phosphates
MAURITANIA	fish, livestock, millet, rice	iron ore, gypsum, copper
NIGERIA	cocoa, groundnuts, palm oil, maize, sorghum	petroleum, tin, columbite, iron ore
SENEGAL	cotton, groundnuts, sorghum, rice	phosphates, iron ore
SIERRA LEONE	rice, coffee, palm kernels	diamonds, bauxite, iron ore
TOGO	coffee, cocoa, yams, cassava, maize	phosphates, limestone

***Present-day Nigeria is where the ancient Kingdom of Benin once was located***

(http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/teachers/curriculum/m6/natural_resources.html)

History of Benin

Benin City began somewhere between the years 1200-1300 a.d., although no written record exists to confirm this. The city provided the means for people to begin specializing in different fields other than farming and hunting. One of the most important occupations for the formation of trade was the craftsman. These craftsmen specialized in casting brass, carving ivory, working iron, and manufacturing objects out of wood. The city also produced a flourishing pottery industry which was most likely the work of the women in the city.


Environment & Geography on Exchange

Benin City is located in what is now present-day Nigeria. The ancient kingdom resided in the Nigerian rainforest, west of the delta and inland from the coast. Benin was not situated near a coast or near a major river. This forest location helped defend the kingdom by prevent large attacks with the thick bush. The forest also provided resources such as yam and palm oil which where primary sources of food. The forest also provided meat, wood for canoes and carving, leaves for roofing, creepers for rope, plants for medicine, clay for pot-making, and ivory for carving. All of these resources could be traded for items in exchange, making the area very wealthy and prominent.


Benin Artwork

Benin is most famous for the artwork created from bronze and ivory. Before trade with Portugal, Holland, and England, the Benin artwork was made of bronzes with 2-10% tin and lead, both of which allow more intricacy in the design. This percentage went up to around 30% by the eighteenth century through trade with Europeans, which allowed for much more malleable metals to be sculpted into more intricate and beautiful pieces. This higher percentage changed the metal from a bronze to a brass. Benin artwork was intended for religious purposes and historical purposes. Most busts are the heads of ancestors and the larger works may have been used to preserve history, as there was no written history in Benin.




Trading Policy

Trade, along with all aspects of Benin society, required a high amount of respect. If a trader was rude or stole something from a Benin trader, all trade to that person was immediately halted. A boycott would be placed on the trader, which all Benin traders obeyed, until the transgressor paid back their transgression or issued a formal apology to those affected.


The Effect of Exchange with Europe

Beginning in the mid 1400’s, the Portugeuse, Dutch, French, British and other European empires began to trade with Benin. Up until this point, all trade had occurred between Benin and surrounding kingdoms. One has to question how Benin traded with the Europeans with no direct access to major waterways. Patrick Darling, an archeologist studying the area, found that there were remains of small canoe waterways winding through swamps bordering Benin City that led to the main waterways. These canoe-ports so close to Benin stresses the importance of water-born trade. A small canoe can carry much more than any porter and can travel 30-40 kilometers per day, which is two to three times further than by foot.

Trade continued with European empires up until the late nineteenth century. At this point the Oba (king of Benin) suspected the British of attempting to colonize and he ended all trade, which ironically led to the demise of the long lasting and powerful kingdom of Benin. After the British concurred the Kingdom of Benin in 1897, Benin artwork was looted and spread round the world, which made the non-existent kingdom extremely popular for its artwork, and that popularity still remains today.



Music
Music has many purposes in West Africa. It can be shown through performance, entertainment, or how it affects ones culture. Some countries have strong values, and different activities affect the way they are portrayed. Musical instruments in West Africa have a great purpose and can have a major effect in the society, along with a very strong cultural value. In West Africa, music is learned through playing instruments. It is also played for many occasions that the culture holds. “ Music can serve has many functions. It can help a man get closer to a women he likes. Music can also help a group of hard working people get through a long day of work “(Haviland pg 338). Music is the one activity that anybody can show his or her emotion. It can be either by dance or by playing an instrument. In the West African culture, there are numerous instruments to choose from and countless dances to select from.

Instruments that are played in West Africa are fit to be played by men or women. One of the instruments West Africa is known for is the one-stringed fiddle. “This instrument can be made different ways, depending on who the musician is. It has been discovered that the manner in which melodies are ornamented serves as a means for a fiddle tradition” (Dje Dje pg. 15). Neighboring and passing tones, grace tones, anticipatory tones, repeated tones, and glissandi- are just some basic examples that the Hausa and Dagomba use. “The Hausa tend to be more complex not only in terms of length and construction, but in their technique of combining small motives to form larger motives” (Dje Dje pg. 15). The Dagomba use simpler ornaments because performance style is not that important to them.

The drum is another important instrument that they play in West Africa. The Kaganu drum is the highest pitched drum (Locke pg. 12). The kaganu is angled away from the player so that the air inside can freely vibrate. These drums are played with wooden sticks. They are measured in weight and in length according the size of the person playing. Different drums are used for different or special occasions. There are also different players for each drum. For marriages they would do a special dance called Nyaka julo for girls and Chingo for boys. Another dance that they do is the Kankurang julo, this is the rhythm they perform for social and religious societies. For entertainment, West African people perform a rhythm dance called Nyroboring julo. A life cycle or infant naming occasion calls for the rhythm Nyaka julo. For a circumcision and excision they perform the same dance as for an infant naming or a life cycle. “The most common are celebrations surrounding two major life cycle events that mark transitions: circumcision/excision ceremonies and marriages” (Charry pg 198). Many of the other kinds of occasions are now rare, or extinct.

The cultured harp had its earliest documentation all the way back to the late sixteenth century. There are many different kinds of harps that are played by the West African people. “Some examples are the korro, which is the large harp with eighteen strings and the simbing, which is the small harp with seven strings” (Charry pg. 75). The West African harps are like no other harps. “They are different because the neck is spiked through the resonator and protrudes from the bottom end” (Charry pg. 76).
Music in West Africa is not only just for pleasure. “Music has promoted political candidates into national office; music also brought down a political regime “(Stone pg 15). Music and the performance part of music were able to develop AIDS prevention awareness in West Africa. Being able to help political candidates reach the national office, and develop awareness for serious programs can change our superstructure for the better in West Africa. Our superstructure is so important because it is where we hold our values, ideas, and concepts. West Africa has so must to value, but not a lot to protect. The ideas and concepts run dry. Music is a great motivator. Take nothing for granted.

If somebody lives in West Africa, they are expected to know how to sing and dance to a minimum. “Some musicians may call among the spirits to be present at a performance. Beliefs about the religious and spiritual world are bound into the fabric of performing” (Stone pg 18). Most women and men are called upon or chosen to be in a performance. Music in West Africa can change the outcome of an event, or it can be a source of entertainment. Music expresses who an individual is and they can have fun playing an instrument while they can be silly. West Africa does have music for every occasion because it is important to them spiritually. Music expresses a person’s identity. It can provide meaningful experiences for people around the world. Some for the better and some for the worse, but music can tell a story of what people are feeling at that moment; that’s a unbelievable thing to experience. Music gives individuals the chance to express who they are. We as humans should embrace the individuality that God gave us through music.



Connah, Graham. "Benin City: from Forest Power to World Fame." Forgotten Africa: an Introduction to Its Archaeology. London: Routledge, 2006. 25-32. Print.
Darling, Patrick. "A Legacy in Earth." Historical Archaeology in Nigeria. Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 1998. 183-85. Print.
"The Fascinating Kingdom of Benin." Ancient Africa. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://africa.mrdonn.org/benin.html>.
Roese, P. M., and D. M. Bondarenko. A Popular History of Benin. The Rise and Fall of a Mighty Forest Kingdom. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2003.
"The Royal Tradition of Benin." Ife, Akan Und Benin: Westafrikanische Kunst Aus 2000 Jahren : Gold, Bronzen, Terrakotten Stuttgart: Arnold, 2000. 17. Print.
Wysinger, Myra. "Benin Kingdom Warriors." Homestead. 2008. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://wysinger.homestead.com/beninwarriors.html>.

Bibliography-
"Africa in the Classrooms." Exploring Africa. Web. 29 Sept. 2010.
http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/.
African History and Culture. Ed. Richard Olaniyan. Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria: Longman Nigeria, 1982. 28-30. Print. Call Number DT 14.A374.
Allen, Christopher. Benin: Economics, Politics and Society. New York: Pinter, 1988. 18. Print. Call number DT 541.22 .A45
Asante, Molefi K., and Kariamu Asante-Welsh. African Culture: the Rhythms of Unity. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985. 54. Print. Call Number DT 14.A364.
Bailey, Nancy, Paul Copperwaite, Margaret Doyle, Moira Johnston, and Ian Wood, eds. Encyclopedia of African Peoples. London: Diagram Visual Information, 2000. 84+. Print. Call Number DT 15.E53.
Bradbury, R. E. Benin Studies. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. 150-182. Print. Call number DT 515.9.B37 B72
Charry, Eric S. Mande Music: Traditional and Modern Music of the Maninka and Mandinka of Western Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2000.
Connah, Graham. "Benin City: from Forest Power to World Fame." Forgotten Africa: an Introduction to Its Archaeology. London: Routledge, 2006. 25-32. Print.
Darling, Patrick. "A Legacy in Earth." Historical Archaeology in Nigeria. Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 1998. 183-85. Print.
Dje, Dje Jacqueline Cogdell. Distribution of the One String Fiddle in West Africa. Los Angeles: Program in Ethnomusicology, Dept. of Music, University of California, 1980.
mr.donn.org. “Ancient Africa for Kids - Ancient African Kingdom of Benin.” http://africa.mrdonn.org/benin.html
Haviland, William A. Cultural Anthropology The Human Challenge. [Belmont, Calif.]: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2005.
Igbafe, Philip Aigbona. Benin under British Administration: the Impact of Colonial Rule on an African Kingdom 1897-1938. London: Longman, 1979. 19-23. Print. Call Number DT 515.9 B37.
Locke, David. Drum Gahu: an Introduction to African Rhythm. Tempe, AZ: White Cliffs Media, 1998
National Geographic. 2007. “Boy to Man.” Web. 21 Sept 2010. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81JPj8BqBBQ.
Neil MacGregor. History of the World in 100 Objects: The First Global Economy. BBC Radio 4.
Newton, Alex. West Africa: A Travel Survival Guide. Victoria: Lonely Planet Publications, 1981. 93. Print. Call number DT 523.N49
Niane, D. T. General History of Africa. Vol. IV. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization. Print.
Roese, P. M., and D. M. Bondarenko. A Popular History of Benin. The Rise and Fall of a Mighty Forest Kingdom. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2003.
"The Royal Tradition of Benin." Ife, Akan Und Benin: Westafrikanische Kunst Aus 2000 Jahren : Gold, Bronzen, Terrakotten Stuttgart: Arnold, 2000. 17. Print.
Smith, Robert. Kingdoms of the Yoruba. Third ed. London: James Currey, 1988. Print.
Stearns, Peter N. The Encyclopedia of World History. Sixth ed. Houghton Mifflin, 2001. Print.
Stone, Ruth M. Music in West Africa: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture. New York: Oxford UP, 2005.
U.S. State Department. “Benin.” http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm
University of Pennsylvania. “Facts About the Republic of Benin: Official Document.” http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Country_Specific/benin_EDoc.html
Vogel, Joseph O. Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa. London: Division of Sage Publications,
1997. Print.
Wysinger, Myra. "Benin Kingdom Warriors." Homestead. 2008. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://wysinger.homestead.com/beninwarriors.html>.
Society

Benin West Africa was once called Dahomey until 1975 when Dahomen gained their independence from France(Allen, Baxter, Sommerville, p.16).



Marriage/ Kinship
There are several tribes that reside in Dahomey; Bariba, Fon, Adja, Aizo, Yoruba, Samba and Peuhl is some of the main tribes in the country (Allen, Baxter, Sommerville, p.5). The research I did on the Dahomey society was mostly from the Bariba tribe. In Dahomey the marriages are arranged. When the marry it is a patrilineal marriage; which means when the man marries the girl they live either near or with the parents. The move does not occur right away because the girl will go live in the fiancee's household 7 - 12 months after the onset of their menstruation (Sargent, C.F, p.50). This ritual is only true for a commoner not the Chief the girl is required to move in right away. When the Bariba get married the only kinship the women have to the men are their children. The children belong to the men and the women belong to her original family (Sargent, C.F, p.50). The Bariba are polygamous; They marry women for prestige and for making many children (Sargent, C.F, p.50).



Amazons
Many of the women that were wives of the king or women really loyal to the kings of the Dahomey were considered the "Elite fighting force". These women were called Amazons. These women were a major part of Dahomey's society because they fought in the army and in wars ( Decalo, S. p.15).

Kings/Chiefs
The rulers of Dahomey were male. In Precolonial Dahomey The King would represent themselves in an annual ceromony that was renewal of the ties btween the King and the peasants. Chiefs from all provinces would be present. When the ceremony would almost come to its end their would be a ritual human sacrifice. The ritual human sacrifice was brought to an end and instead of using them to sacrifice they were enslaved ( Decalo, S. p.15).


Are they Stratified or Egalitarian?
The Bariba tribe in Dahomey is a stratified culture. The main basis of their status is their profession, age, and sex. The highest of the ranks are land chiefs next to that is blacksmith which are known as aristocrats or in the language Wasangari. The lowest status is hunter, which is known as a commoner and in the language known as Baatonu and if you have poisons Tauso. Women are not allowed to move up in status besides within the family, which could mean she is the first wife so she can assign duties for the other wives (Sargent C.F. pg 44-45).


Bibliography
Allen C., Baxter J., Radu M.S., Sommerville K. (1988).Benin, The Congo, Burkina Faso. London and New York: Pinter Publishers.
Decalo S. (1976). Historical Dictionary of Dahomey (Peoples Republic of Benin). Metuchen, N.J.: The Scarecrow Press Inc.
Sargent C.F.(1982). The Cultural Context of Therapeutic choice : Obsterical Care Decisions Among the Bariba of Benin. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company.






Politics
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GC_rbF7SDgo

• Broadly speaking, is your political organization centralized or uncentralized?
  • Even though Mali wasn't a "state" it was still very centralized because it was broken down into conquered provinces. And those provinces payed a Tribute as a show or respect or alliance.
  • Under the books definition of centralized government, Mali fits because it was an advanced empire that grew in the size of W. Europe and political authority and power needed to be be concentrated to a single individual.
    
• Does your culture have leaders with “power” or “influence”? How do they attain their position? What role(s) do they serve?
  • The Mande culture believed in a single ruler or king. They were called a "Mansa".
  • The Mansa was in charge of the entire empire and was also suppose to follow the family bloodline of the original Mansa, Sundiata AKA Sunjata.
    
  • They are in charge of the military rule as well as being in charge of the Mansa's Court (explained later). With being a political figure, the Mansas were also seen as a religious figure. The empire was primarily Muslim, so they followed the 5 pillars of Islam very closely. So when the Mansa would make there Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca, thousands of his people would follow him all the way to the holy city of Mecca to make the voyage.
    
• How are major decisions made? (Consensus, council, authority makes the decision?)
  • As i stated before the Mansas would hold a court, during which ordinary citizens would make could submit complaints and legal disputes with one another.
    
  • But as many other leaders around, before, and after this time, the Mansa had councils to help him with important issues, but ultimately the Mansa had the final decision on what would be done with the Empire.
• Is there a bureaucracy? If so, outline how it is organized.
  • There was a bureaucracy. It was outlined as such:
    • Mansa
    • Province Governors known as Ferbas
    • Each important city under the Ferba would have an inspector of the city
      
      • These inspectors were not chosen by the Ferba, instead the Mansa chose them to prevent rebellion or corruption of the Ferbas.

• How are disputes settled? (informal/formal? Negotiation/mediation/adjudication?)
  • As i stated before there was a court that the Mansa would control where normal, everyday people could go and dispute anything they needed fit to dispute.
    
• Are there formal sanctions (laws)? If so, how are they enforced?
  • Since they were a Muslim empire, they had laws based on the Qur'an and Islamic culture.
    
  • Truth-Telling Rituals were involved to prosecute or set people free from the charges set against him/her
• What informal sanctions (if any) are present (examples include: gossip, ridicule, ostracism, accusations/fear of witchcraft, other supernatural or religious factors)?
  • Voodoo had a big infliuence on everyday life of the W. African. People lived to fear it or practice it in W. Africa.
    
• What is your cultural stance towards foreigners? (Accepting? engaging? reclusive?)
  • As long as they were loyal to the Mali Kingdom they were excepted as apart of the Empire
    
  • Trade, Captures, Slaves were all apart of everyday communication and interaction with other people and that is why the kingdom grew to the size it did.
    

Religion
Understanding the origin of religion is indigenous cultures is quite difficult due to the fact that traditions were usually passed along orally from one generation to the next instead of through the written word. Another reason is that any account of their beliefs is through the eyes and mind of Christians and Islam. (Religion, Colonial Africa: Indigenous Religion.) Even though it’s hard to get an account on the religions practiced during 1450 we can look at later years and see how they have evolved over time.

One of the major religions that West Africa focused on at the time was Vodun, this in known today as voodoo. Voodoo is the combination of the animistic side of Vodun with Christianity. Even though many outside of this culture view this belief as polytheistic it is actually monotheistic. Their supreme God is Mawu, he is the mentality of these people – he is good but does not concern himself directly with man. The Vodun believe that Mawu designated his power to them – making them his followers, his creatures. Not only do they communicate with Mawu but also other spirits, such as his sons and their ancestors. (ZinzinDohoue, Barthelemy. Traditional Religion in Africa: The Vodun Phenomenon in Benin) To a lot of people this could be seen as polytheistic – yet we have Christianity as our main religion, which focuses on the Father, Son, and Holy spirit. Christianity is still labeled as a monotheistic view – this should be considered when looking into Vodun. When Christians realized that Vodun was being practiced they were disgusted by it and believed them to be worshipping the devil. It was finally given official recognition in 1996.

Not only was voodoo practiced but also Christianity, this surprised me sine I didn’t think that Christianity would come into play until after precolonization. In 1514, Oba Ozolua sent someone to Lesbon to announce that he was interested in Christianity. When the missionaries arrived in 1515 they were unsuccessful in the long run. It wasn’t until his son’s reign that Christianity had more of an effect. Joh Affonso d’Aviero came to Benin city and advised Esigie (Ozalua’s son) to become Christian, saying that it would make his country better. Esigie than asked Portugal to send priests to teach him and his people the faith. (Koschorke, Ludwi, Delgado P. 147-148) Now this was long before colonization by the French – which was initiated in the later part of the 19th century. (French Colonization of Benin. Maps of the World)

Today voodoo is still practiced though not as largely as it had been before being colonized. Today 42.8% are Christian, 24.4% are Muslim, 15.5% other and only 17.39% are Vodun.

Bibliography

Barthelemy. Traditional Religion in Africa: The Vodun Phenomenon in Benin. October 25, 2010. <http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/zinzindohoue.htm>
French Colonization of Benin. Maps of the World. October 25, 2010. <http://www.mapsofworld.com/benin/history/french-colonization.html>
Religion, Colonial Africa: Indigenous Religion. (2004). InEncyclopedia of African History. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.er.lib.k-state.edu/entry/routafricanhistory/religion_colonial_africa_indigenous_religion
RELIGION (AFRICA). (2008). InAfrica and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.er.lib.k-state.edu/entry/abcafatrle/religion_africa
Religion: Indigenous Beliefs: Sub-Saharan Africa. (2004). InEncyclopedia of African History. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com.er.lib.k-state.edu/entry/routafricanhistory/religion_indigenous_beliefs_sub_saharan_africa
Koschorke, Ludwi, Delgado. A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1450-1990. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2007. P. 147-148
<http://www.nationmaster.com/country/bn-benin/rel-religion>

CORE CULTURAL VALUES

There are many things we valueas Americans.Our values may not be the same as other countries, but there are manyaspects that aresimilar.

Although a third of the people are Christian or Muslim, many practice Voodoo.Voodoo does not involve morality, but it came from the believing that God created spirits (or Fetishes) that each seem to have magical powers that can effect a human life. By making offers to the fetishes, people believe that something great can come from them and coinciding, something bad may happen as well. (Newton, 1988:96) The following video shows an example of a fetish market.



For us to relate Voodoo to our lives, think about a little about our beliefs. One of the values some of us have as Americans is religion or having faith. We have our rituals of dance, music, prayer, and such which relates a lot to them as well. The fetishes that they have can be comparable to the crosses we hang on our wall, or the urns sitting on our fireplaces.

The Art is one of the things the Fon are well known for. Specifically brass and silver sculptures used to enhance their status’s. (Ronen, 1975: 158) They have such a vibrant and innovative music scene and you can tell just by watching recordings of them that it is an important aspect in their community. Rhythm & melody is a major influence on their music and it’s exciting to hear.

The language and greetings that the people have is something they take great pride in. In their culture, they greet everyone and try to make everyone feel at home. (Houngnikpo, 2001: 171) It’s so interesting how that works compared to us here in America. Some of us walk through campus every day with our heads down, not acknowledging people unless we know them. And if we did acknowledge everybody, it would be out of the “norm”, out of our “culture.”

A Cultural History of What is Now Benin

The history of the West African nation of Benin proves to be an interesting case study in colonialism and the evolution of a culture. In order to understand the history of this diverse nation, it is necessary to first understand that culture is a dynamic force among any group and thus it builds upon itself as well as experiences diffusion from outside forces. The cultural history of Benin can be expeditiously divided into three relatively definite periods: Pre-Dahomen ancient kingdoms, the era of Dahomen dominance, Colonial Dahomey and Post-Colonial Benin.

The pre-Dahomen period of Benin’s history is characterized by a wealth of smaller, ethnically homogenous states that existed within the territory that has much more recently become Benin. Periodic cycles of conquest were prevalent in this time era, however large powerful states did not emerge for whatever reason. Culturally and this period in the history of Benin is characterized by small-scale subsistence agriculture practices gradually evolving into slightly larger, more complex societies. This period existed from prehistory until approximately 1300 when the first powerful dynastic empires emerged in the region (Republic, 1960).

Sometime between the late 13th and mid-14th century the Kingdom of Dahomey gradually emerged along the eastern bank of the Mono river after a three-way dispute over succession among the Allada nation. Slow development, relative ethnic homogeneity and geographic isolationism continued as cultural identity gradually shifted away from that of the Allada and other neighboring states; these factors contributed to increased Dahomen nationalism all the way up until the beginning of the 16th century. At this point the Kingdom of Dahomey began expanding much more rapidly. It is around this point in the cultural development of Benin that human sacrifice and the all female warrior class of Amazons emerged. This can plausibly be attributed to the expansionist policies that were beginning to take root as well as a new found nationalism that made the Dahomen people feel superior to other ethnic groups around them.

From 1500 until the mid-1620’s Dahomey began expanding south and west of the Mono River, capturing smaller, less organized kingdoms in the process. Many revisionist versions of the history of Dahomey do not even recognize the emergence of the Kingdom until around 1625 upon the ascension of the first powerful King of Dahomey. The Kingdom of Dahomey continued to expand gradually throughout the 18th century and well into the 19th century (Decalo,1987).

During the 17th century, slavery emerged as a viable means of income for Dahomey. The King, who existed in a state not entirely unlike that of European feudalism, sold the men captured from conquered states into slavery, rather than for human sacrifice as had been the previous custom. At its peak, he slavery trade generated an estimated 250,000 dollars for the King of Dahomey. The slave trade led to unpopularity among neighboring states of Dahomey and contributed to intermittent wars throughout the 18th and 19th centuries (Ali-Dinar, 2007).

French Colonization of Dahomey has its roots in the 15th century when first contact was made. However, trade and cultural exchange were very rare until around the mid 17th century. At this point Dahomey became fully engaged in the transatlantic slave trade and experienced major cultural changes related to European influence. Westernization of the Dahomen people occurred as a direct result of increased contact as time progressed. Infrastructural and educational development came as a consequence of increased French intervention during the 18th and 19th century, including a growing missionary presence in the region (Decalo, 1987).

In 1892 the Franco-Dahomen War began, lasting two years and leading to the eventual annexation of Dahomey by France. The boundaries of the resulting colony were drawn without consideration of the indigenous cultural groups, thus the political entity of Dahomey grew to the size and shape it is today. Further French influence in the local culture was evident in agricultural practices. A growing movement away from subsistence and toward production agriculture, as well as pressure to expand farming came to a head in the earliest part of the 20th century. Dahomey existed as a colony until 1946, when a new French constitution was drafted that recategorized it as a Territory of the French Union and allowed for senators and deputies to be elected. The period from this point until Dahomen independence is characterized by growing domestic control over foreign affairs. Universal suffrage was granted in 1958, and two years later on August 1st, 1960 Dahomey became an independent state (Factbook, 2010).

The era of independence was originally a time of political instability and cultural uncertainty as the new nation attempted to determine how to exist independently. The first fifteen years of independence are characterized by a revolving door of dictators turned by periodic coups. This cycle continued until 1974 when socialism came to power. Under socialist rule, Dahomey changed its name to The Peoples Republic of Benin as it is still currently known. For 15 years the state dominated the economy and suppressed public opinion and private industry. In 1989 a movement toward multiparty democracy gained moment and resulted in free elections in 1991. These elections marked the first peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy on the African continent. More recently Benin has enjoyed relative political and economic stability compared to other nations in the region, despite its status as an underdeveloped nation. The trend away from subsistence agriculture toward cotton production that began more than a century earlier continues today. Currently a bottom heavy population pyramid should lead to an increase in population, while a newly elected government as of 2008 focused on fighting corruption holds promise for raising markedly low socioeconomic indicators in Benin (World Factbook 2010).


Our World Simulation Story

In the World Simulation, Benin closely followed the established cultural guidelines of proxemics, gender privileges, and political power. We had established that we would be a close knit culture where women would have to stay in boundaries of the homeland whereas men must establish themselves and create alliances with bordering countries and successfully trade. Our “Mansa” made major political decisions dealing with potential colonizers and helping to guide trade routes. With these guidelines in mind, we began to trade, and by the end of the World Sim, the dynamic history of the culture of Benin closely resembled the cultural activity within our simulation.

Round 1 (1450-1650)

For Benin, this round proved to be the most peaceful. The men in the group visited surrounding cultures and had successful trade with the !Kung and Egypt. We also established alliances with these cultures. By the end of the round, no one starved or died and it was quite easy to quickly trade with surrounding countries in order to gain sustenance. This round was the different than the cultural Benin (or Dahomey) of 1450-1650 as it was a turbulent time of land disputes and conquest. However, agricultural practices and trade helped Dahomey to gradually emerge into a more complex society, which is what we experienced as we gained alliances from nearby countries as we began to successfully harvest food in the simulation.

Round 2 (1650-1800)

In this round, there emerged a worldwide demand for diamond necklaces. Benin remains one of the most richest resources for diamonds, and so this round is mostly marked by consistent colonization and turbulence. In the simulation, Benin was colonized by the British Isles and asked to make necklaces from fruit loops (representing diamonds). Shortly after colonization of the British Isles, Germany took over this colonization. However, Germany’s colonization was short-lived, as British eventually remained the final colonizer for the round. After much confusion from the power struggle between Germany and the British, our culture decided to boycott the necklace labor. However, the British Isles provided us with money and so the necklace labor continued. Fortunately, no one starved or died and we had enough food harvested to sustain our culture until the end of the round.
During the 17th century, slavery became a dominant force of income for the kingdom of Dahomey. This proved to be true in the simulation as labor brought us much of our income paid for by the British throughout the round. French colonization with Dahomey began in the 15th century. By the 17th century, Dahomey was fully engaged in the transatlantic slave trade and experienced many cultural changes due to European influence.


Round 3 (1800-1950)

Benin gained two refugees in this round and was colonized by the joint powers of France and Germany. Our culture decided to strike for peace with the !Kung and eventually gained independence from our colonizers. For historical Dahomey, this would not happen until 1960 after its previous existence as a French colony after annexation as a result of the French-Dahomen War in 1892. However, the turbulence in this time period in the simulation proved to be quite similar to the wars, annexations, and eventual independence of Dahomey in world history.

Round 4 (1950- 2100)

In this round, natural resources proved to be the most scarce. However, Benin has enough to live off of and eventually survived without forced labor from outside sources. In the sim, our culture used soft power to persuade colonizers that our natural resources were scarce and there would be little benefitting from colonization. Benin ended the world simulation as a small, independent country. The era of independence for Dahomey proved to be a turbulent one as there existed much uncertainty in how to exist as an independent nation. This proved to be true in the simulation as, though we had enough to live off of in the end, our natural resources were scarce and there would inevitably emerge a demand for a new way of life.