For information on expectations for your ethnographic section, refer to the Cultures of Fall 2010 page.
Be sure to check out our Ideas for World Simulation page!




Environment






The Himalayan Mountain Range is among the coldest places in the world (Johnson 1996:29). It stretches 2,500 km from Pakistan to Brahmaputra, Assam. This mountain range shelters India from the cold winds of Tibet and plays a huge role in determining the climate of North India. The melting snows of this mountain surge into rivers, which carry detritus sediment from the eroded mountain and deposits them in the valleys and plains of India (Wolpert 1991:18). The eastern region of India contains tropical forests, while the western region houses pines and coniferous woodlands. More trees found in the Himalayas are chir pine, pine nut, oak, maple, and ash (India Site: Flora and Fauna). In the Alpine areas, or the high mountain areas, there are juniper and rhododendron (Incredible India: Admire All Things Bright and Beautiful 2006). In the rain-soaked foothills are deciduous trees, shrubs, ferns and grasses. The Brahmaputra Valley has tea plantations, rice fields, mulberry trees where they grow silk worms (India Site: Flora and Fauna). Some animals that live in the Himalayas are sheep, musk deer, wild goats, brown bears, snow leopards, and jungle cats (Incredible India: Admire All Things Bright and Beautiful 2006).




In the northeast there are the Sunderbans, which consists of dense mangrove forests and is referred to as a tidal swamp forest covering 2,500 km. This area is crisscrossed with distributaries, and the land is saturated with salt. The weather fluctuates from humid to scorching hot and some of the animals living here are Bengal Tigers, porpoises, fishing cats, pangolins, rhinoceroses, Indian pythons, and crocodiles. Nature located here makes for an extremely hostile environment. (India Wildlife Tours: Wildlife in Sunderbans National Park).



The Thar Desert is also known as the Great Indian Desert, which is located in western India. Three major regions of this desert are the sand covered Thar, the plains, and the hills. This desert as a whole is interspersed with hillocks, gravel, salt, marshes and some lakes. The Luni River is the only river crossing these sands. The desert region of India houses short and stout trees, stunted by the sun, cactus, reunjha, kheira, kanju, and ak. Plants in the desert are reduced to dry scrubland and drought-resistant plants (India Site: Flora and Fauna). In the more hospitable parts of this desert, tropical moist deciduous forests are mixed with tropical dry deciduous trees. Trees like sal, teak, semul, laurel, rosewood, mahua, amla, khair, and common bamboo grow here (India Online: Flora 2010).
Some animals of this desert are falcons, houbara bustards, Indian spiny-tailed lizards, chinkaras, blackbucks, desert foxes, and caracals (World Wildlife Fund: Thar Desert 2001).


The Rann of Kutch is an unusual seasonal marsh located in the Thar desert. In the dry season, the marshland is dried out leaving salt islands on the grasslands and savannas. During monsoon season, the marshland floods and is transformed into a vast inland sea. This place is the home of the largest flamingo breeding colony in the world. Millions of pink flamingos annually fly to this marsh to nest and raise their young. The Rann of Kutch also is home to the Asiatic wild asses, the chinkaras, nilgais, wolves, blackbucks, striped hyenas, desert cats, demoiselle cranes, houbara bustards, lesser floricans, and caracals (World Wildlife Fund: Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh 2001). Even in the harsh desert there is life.



The Vindhya Range is the dividing line between the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Indian Peninsula (Coutsoukins: India The Peninsula 1995). The Indian Peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan Plateau, which is made of ancient bedrock (Johnson 1996) and houses tropical and subtropical broad-leaf forests (World Wildlife Fund: Central Deccan Plateau 2001). This land has black soil made from volcanic lavas making the Deccan a good place for farming (Johnson 1996: 33-34). Within this plateau are a variety of hoofed animals, such as deer. Eighty percent of the region, which use to be moist evergreen rain forests, are gone and replaced by dry-climate forests meaning the peninsula was more tropical in later times (World Wildlife Fund: Central Deccan Plateau 2001). The Deccan plateau is sandwiched between two coastal ranges: the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These coastal ranges, during the monsoon season, are one of the wettest places on earth. The Western Ghats alone was estimated to have received over 16,000 mm of precipitation from June to September (Johnson 1996:31).



The northwestern coastal plain is characterized by tidal marshes, drowned valleys, and estuaries. The southwest coast of the Peninsula has lagoons and is the longest uninterrupted stretch of rain forest in the country (India Site: Flora and Fauna). The south has lagoons, marshes, and beach ridges. The eastern coastal plains are wider than the west and have large river deltas (Coutsoukins: India The Peninsula 1995). Rivers running into the sea continually reshape and mold the coastline, depositing and shifting silt carried from inland (Johnson 1996:14). On these coasts, palm trees, especially coconut palm trees, are common.


Maize, barley, fruit, almonds, apricots and apples grow on the higher slopes of the valleys of the Himalayas. In the drier upper Ganges and Indus Valley area the most important cereal crop that is grown is wheat. In the lower Gangetic, plain rice, the most important crop, is grown. In the arid parts of the south, gram, chick peas, lentils, millet, and cotton are produced (Johnson 1996:35).
India is a country rich in minerals and resources. Babur (1483-1520), the founder of the Mughal empire in northern India, recorded that he was drawn to India by the prospect of ruling a large country “full of gold and silver" (Johnson 1996:13). 15th century statues (Rawson 1991:21) and King Kushan’s coins from between 75 AD and 244 AD (Johnson 1996:20) show that metals, such as gold, silver, and copper were in use for a long time. Other resources and minerals India has are teak, which is timber used to make ships or furniture, ebony, bamboo, iron ore (About India 1954:8-9), salt, gypsum, gemstones, gas, oil, bauxite, and mineral sands (Johnson 1996:198-215). Aluminum is also produced here with large deposits of manganese and some coal (About India 1954:8-9). Also, 80% of the world’s jute, a natural textile fiber, is grown between India and Bangladesh (Dall': Production and Design). Diverse rock formations allow a rich source of building materials, such as pink marble, granite, and limestone (About India 1954:8-9).

Language

During the Mughal Empire many of the early people spoke the Chagatai language. The Chagatai language was a branch of the Turkic language family. It has many similar words and phrases associated with the Persian and Arabic languages. The language was written using the Perso-Arabic alphabet. The Chagatai language can be separated into three main time periods. The first time period began around 1400 until 1465 and is known as the Pre-classical Chagatai. Next was the Classical Chagatai between 1465 and 1600. The third time period was the Post-classical Chagatai from 1600 to 1921 (Wikipedia September 16, 2010).





Mughal India was recognized for its remarkable accomplishments in poetry and a large variety of Persian writing. Persian writing eventually symbolized Mughal triumph in India. The Mughals basically inherited a legacy and continued with the incredible writing. During this time there was religious and political persecution in the sectarian Safavid regime, therefore many Persian writers were going to India in search of better fortune. Mughal India became culturally close with Iran because the Iranians were able to flourish better there in their writing talents rather than in their own country. As a result, Persian managed to keep its status as the first language of the Mughal king and his court. The ruler Akbar was not highly educated so he had his important books read out loud to him. He had a library of books and poetical works that were written in Arabic, Persian, Hindi, Greek, Kashmiri. In most situations, Akbar normally preferred the ones in Persian (Alam 2004:122-6).

The people of India use music as another form of communication. They have written hymns to express their feelings, beliefs, and aspects of the Vedic religion. The hymns acknowledge the existence of a future life. In this future life, rewards are acquired for the good deeds achieved on earth and the punishments are carried out for crimes committed (Oppert 1978:530).




The caste system of India separated people into many different classes. One caste that divided into 18 different classes is known as the Pariah caste. The people amongst the higher classes and lower classes were usually not on friendly terms with each other; it was not common for them to speak to one another. They disagreed on issues associated with taking sides with the right-hand and left-hand castes. The debates usually seemed to have issues relating to both national and religious issues. “According to one version Vyāsa induced the king to issue a proclamation, enacting that all those who sided with the king should be styled right-hand caste men, and all those who opposed him left-hand caste men” (Oppert 1978:57-8). In the caste system there are generally rules about people talking to certain people in certain situations. Sometimes the people acknowledged each other in a friendly manner, typically when they were not engaged in hostilities (Oppert 1978:66).

Among certain tribes if an unmarried girl went along side with an outsider of a lower caste then she would most likely have been expelled and rejected from her community. Women had lesser importance as compared to the men; the upper caste would not acknowledge a woman in the lower class especially if she was rejected from her community (Chauhan 1990:42-3).

In the following YouTube video the people discuss the many languages and dialects that are presently spoken in India. One language that they emphasize is the Sanskrit language which was introduced during the ancient Vedic Period. Warlike tribes invaded India from the northwest and gradually spread to the east, then to the south, and almost throughout the entire country. These conquerors spoke the Sanskrit language and forced it on the aborigines (Macdonell 1956:12).



Media/Technology

The technology found in India was the foundation of the technology that we use today. The interesting point is that many of these techniques or tools were created by China.

When thinking about what Indians used for agriculture, an object that should sound familiar was used back in the 15th century. The plow was one of the more revolutionary items found in India. A product of China, India was able to grab a hold of it like the rest of Asia and use it for their farming. Over time, high powered officials began trying to use updated plows that would be more efficient; however, people using the plows were in a serious state of poverty and could not afford the newest equipment (Gopal 1999:319).


Though they are not something Indians invented, horses played an important role during the 15th century. If walking was not fast enough, horses were used get from point A to point B. Not only were they useful in transportation, but they were used on the farm. For example, horses pulled the plow to help with the process of growing crops. Another interesting mode of transportation was a palkee. Women who had money or power were often carried around in these. Four men would lift up the woman who sat comfortably inside a very royal looking box, with shades and other adornments.
Paper was a large form of communication in the 15th century; it was essentially the only way to communicate with another person besides physically talking to one another. During the battle of Atlakh, Chinese prisoners were brought back and introduced the idea of paper to India. Originally, they made paper with the linen they had, but eventually paper was being made out of flax and other vegetable fibers. (Rahman 1999:264) They would use India ink, which is made out of fine soot called lampblack, then combined with water and a gelatin to keep everything together.



Though we may communicate with words a majority of the time, music is something everyone can understand and interpret. Like the rest of the world, India used different musical instruments to create a thought and share it with the people. The khol was used during the 15th century. As Dilip Barthakur explains in his book The Music and Musical Instruments of North Eastern India, the khol is a “two faced cylindrical instrument” that is played with the fingers (Barthakur 2003:89).

Something that everyone knows about is the great invention of gun powder. Another invention from the Chinese, gunpowder was seen because of the constant immigration apparent during this time (Rahman 1999:257). As history has shown the world, whoever has the most powerful weapon is the country that holds the power. With this advancement in weaponry, India was able to create guns and cannons. The material they used for these items were iron, brass, bronze, and steel (Mehrotra 1982).
These few items are only a small amount of what India had to offer to their culture. These ideas and tools were the first look at what technology would be like during this century.

Education/Child-Rearing

Imagine yourself as a boy in India. It is the year 1500 and you are being educated. Your teacher is a guru that orally lectures a rigorous curriculum, and your writing materials are bark and leaves. Your occupation is predetermined based upon what your father’s career is and your parents choose who you will love. Does that sound like a society that one would ideally want to partake in? Children in India did not have freedom of choice like so many of us are accustomed to in America today. They were very dependent upon their parents who chose their marriage partner, their career and their form of education. “For girls, the stage of student hood coincides with that of householder, and the husband stands in place as the teacher” (www.indhistory.com). The man of the household was in charge of teaching and raising his children and teaching his wife the household duties. Boys are favored and believed to be reincarnated. “A strong preference for sons, resulting in the neglect of daughters has been documented in rural India” (Miller 1985:1). The males have a “ second birth, much like a present day confirmation or Bar Mitzvah where they wear a thread around their waist signifying they are born again and enter the stages of life” (www.indhistory.com). These four stages range from a boy being “born again” up until he decides to break apart from his village and wander, if he so chooses. Young males in childhood are encouraged to be respectful, celibate, and obedient to their parents wishes until they reach their second stage into adulthood. “When villagers speak of achievement, almost all think in terms of education and the kinds of occupations through education” (Verma 1970:101). Although the boy takes after his father in profession, (Father is a farmer, therefore son will be farmer) the culture believes in educating males to be extremely talented and intellectual in their career. “Childhood is the period of effective enculturation of the children, youth that of hard-work work and enjoyment of pleasures, and old age too of hard-work and exercising social control on the younger ones” (Ruhela 1984:30). While women do not receive the promising education that males receive, they are not devalued as children, just believed to have a different calling, such as household chores. The males are dependent upon their parents to raise them and they also have general duties that pay off the “three debts” to their ancestors to be able to get married and have children. The duties that they partake in involve sacrifices and household rituals.
Parents demand that their sons do not have any sexual relations with girls so that they can focus completely on their education. Parents plan the marriage partner of their children, and even provide a dowry as payment for a wife. Parents expect their children to have an infant within the first year of marriage, even though the parents-to-be are still children themselves. After the parents feel they have done their duty as a parent, in the fourth stage, they are given the choice of leaving behind everything in living in the forest as hermits, which entails leaving all of their possessions to their children.

Gender

As of 1450 in India, there were two main genders, male and female. As a child, children were allowed to play without being reprimanded. At the age of 4 or 5, boys were required to give up playing childish games and start learning the alphabet and how to read. Based on what caste system the boys were in, they were then initiated into ritual instruction. Ritual instruction allowed the boys to learn about performing rituals and allowed them to perform the rituals. If the child was in the Brahman caste, they were initiated at the age of eight; if in the ksatriya caste, they were initiated at age eleven; if in the vaisya caste, they were initiated at age twelve (Auboyer 1965). After the boys had completed initiation, they were then awarded with a sacred thread. It was placed over the boy’s left shoulder and under the right arm. The boys were bound to wear this for the rest of their lives and could now perform rituals.

In India, women were considered to be less superior to men. People also believed that women could not be trusted with any type of work that required responsibility. Women were also believed to not be fit for any type of independence. For example, the father took care of her during childhood; her husband protected her during youth; and sons protected her in old age. This allowed for no type of independence for women. Women also inherited very little. But in the event of inheritance, Muslim women received a more liberal treatment versus Hindu women. The main role for women was the caregiver to the children (Rashid 1969).

The main roles of men in Indian society were to hunt, gather food, and be guild masters (Dube 2001). Men became guild masters by hereditary succession or by election. Each guild had a unique seal made of bronze, copper, ivory, stone, or terracotta. The guild created solid bonds that extended over the surface of the entire kingdom on India (Auboyer 1965:102-6).

In India, the government was generally led by a King. In the event of rituals, these are always preformed by males (Auboyer 1965).

Subsistence

In the early days of India, agricultural people were characterized by large dense populations, a sedentary existence and a less diverse and more refined diet than they have now. These poeple also lived in close proximity with domesticated animals. This easily led to health hazards, including an increased prevalence of parasitism, infectious disease, and degenerative skeletal conditions (Lukacs 2002:44). Other than that, not much is known of early crops and ways of farming due to the fact that the writings of these early civilizations have not been deciphered. This also makes it difficult to determine the conditions under which the early people of this region lived. This is a map of major farming systems in India. Where they grow rice is in the dark green color (Stamp 1961:111).

What we do know is that early Indians ate food that was easily available to them from nature. They ate things such as fruits, wild berries, meat, fish, etc. These were the main foods of nomadic dwellers and foragers. Later, when people began to farm, this led to the discovery of using crops to grow food. Food in ancient India was cultivated in the fertile river valleys and rice became their staple food that was eaten with cooked lentils, vegetables and meat.Rice is a prominent food for more than half of the rest of the world as well (Sorensen 1986:1). This gave their diet much more subsistence. Another popular crop was wheat, It was used to make flat breads known as "Chapatti", which looks much like a tortilla (http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/food.html).

Later, animal sacrifices peaked and more and more people became vegetarians. Milk products became much more prominent during ancient times, as did rice. Rice was eaten with curd and yogurt. Many people easily became vegetarian because cows were respected and worshiped, hence people stopped eating beef. Crops were not only grown to eat. Many spices were cultivated in India and were used in cooking for aroma and flavor (http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/food.html).

We think that in the early days a monsoon-type crop , which includes, cotton, cane sugar and rice that were grown in the Indus Valley, was being raised in this area. They do not do this today though, because of the climatic conditions (Phillip's Encyclopedia 2008:India). Anthropologists and historians believe that there is a possible climate change in the area between the early days and current times.They believe that precipitation is heavier now than before. Although, this seems optimal for growing rice, the ground may not be draining sufficiently, causing the ground to be too wet for agriculture (Sorensen 1986:271). In addition, in ancient India, silt came down the Indus River in an annual flood. It is estimated that it was about twice the amount of silt than what came down the Nile River in Egypt, which is a tremendous amount. During this time cities controlled crop production and grain storage areas, which is interesting because the size of the dams and other buildings suggests that it was quite a highly populated area for them to undertake such large projects (Stamp 1961:111).

Ancient Indians used techniques like dams and drainage systems to regulate the water being let on to their crops. Another farming technique was terracing, which is when a farmer cuts step-like indentions into the side of a hill to plant their crops. This was very effective in growing rice. For other agricultural work they plowed, furrowed and irrigated from the rivers using a water wheel (Sen 2004:3). As farming grew, they began to have standards of weights and measures - this large scale crop production is estimated to be established about 3000 B.C. This picture is an example of a terraced landscape used for growing rice (Stamp 1961:111). Later on during this time, merchants took part in sea trading with the middle east exporting goods such as, cotton, barley, sesame oils, wood and gems (Sen 2004:3).



Exchange
Prior to 1450, India was the home and leading export of precious gems in the Eastern world. India lies on the route between the West and the far East; it played a vital role in growth of trade and commerce (Agarwala 1).

The most common monetary unit in India is the rupee. Akbar is one of the most successful rulers of Mughal India; he is responsible for the conventional rupee. The first recognizable rupees date back to the 1540s and were made of all sorts of metals from silver to gold to the less-valuable copper dams (Agarwala 69-71).

Rupees were spent on everything from day-to-day goods to dowries. These dowries and settlements regulated the exchange of women as marriage partners among the elite. Along with dowries, gifts played a central role in the emotional economy (Finn 203-231). They were vital in political relations as well as maternal ones. Gifts were often given during large ceremonial gatherings called durbars. These durbars were fantastic events for the whole family. It was a privilege to go to the market.

Sex In India
The topic of sex in India is a complex one and one with little information regarding the year 1450. My roommate parents are from India, and her mom is there right now. I have spoke with her parents and they have told me that sex is India is very private and hidden. It is not like what we see here in America with it in every T.V. show and movies. They said because of arranged marriages historically sex for many was strictly to produce children and nothing else.
Many people all around the world have at least heard of the book the Kama Sutra. When I conducted my research i found that it was written in India between the first and sixth centuries and was originally known as Vatsyayana Kamasutram. Kama meaning sensual or sexual pleasure and sutra means a thread or line that holds things together. This philosophical work on kama shastra, or 'love science', was intended as both an exploration of human desire, including seduction and infidelity, and as a technical guide to pleasing a sexual partner within a marriage. (Hunter 1886:435). The Kama Sutra is one of the surviving texts about the sixty-four arts of love making. It was not widely distributed by everyone in India. The history of sex in India was always guided by the caste system, as it is today. Sex between castes was often forbidden. The higher castes and those belonging to the no Colonization had a very big impact on the history of sex in India. British colonists brought with them a Victorian attitude towards sex and propriety. The establishment of British rule meant that British ideas towards sex slowly spread throughout India. This severely curbed sexual freedom and many respected Indians adopted this form of thinking towards sexuality. Some Indian philosophies follow the “four main goals of life” also known as the purusharthas. The goals are: 1. Dharma: Virtuous living 2. Artha: Material Prosperity 3. Kama: Aesthetic and erotic pleasure 4. Moksha: Liberation (http://ezinearticles.com/?History-of-Sex-in-India-and-Its-Changing-Role&id=1634805).




The fate of sexuality within marriage is likely to come under an evil constellation of stars from what I understood from the reading. According to Hindu tradition, a husband should only approach his wife sexually during her ritu (season), a period of sixteen days within the menstrual cycle. But intercourse is forbidden on six of these sixteen days, the first four days, and the eleventh and thirteenth. This leaves only ten days for conjugal relations, but since the all-important sons are conceived only on even nights and daughters on uneven nights, the days for conjugal relations shrinks to five. Then there are the parvas, the moonless nights and those of the full moon when sexual relations lead either to the birth of atheist sons (Brahma Purana) or the “hell of feces and urine” (Vishnu Purana). Add to these taboos the many festival days for gods and ancestors when erotic pleasures are forbidden. The culture alone does not affect the sex life of Indians; the people themselves do not try to enjoy the passion. Most women have their experiences with sexual intercourse as a furtive act in a cramped room, lasting barely a few minutes and with a marked absence of physical or emotional caressing (Ghosh 2006:200). They do it as a duty, an experience to be submitted to, often from a fear of losing their husband to another woman but not as need to love and have sex. Despite these pervasive negative images of the conflict between the sexes in marriage, and the negative view of women and sexuality, it must be pointed out that Indian sexual relations are not devoid of regular pauses in the conflict between man and woman. Cravings for sex, a plunge into the depths of erotic passion, sexual ecstasy of a husband and wife who have found their way through the forest of sexual taboos, do exist in India at every nick and corner of India (Keay 2004:102).

Marriage in India

Arranged marriage is commonly practiced in India. Marriage is essential to everyone and families put a lot of focus on the wedding ceremony as well as finding a spouse for their child. Arranging a marriage is a critical responsibility for parents and other relatives for both the bride and the groom. Some parents begin marriage arrangements at birth, but most wait until youth.Girls were married as young as five, but usually as preteens. Just like we are born into a family without any say, marriages are arranged without any personal preference. (Ostor, Fruzzetti, and Barnett 1982:23-55).


There were several aspects a family had to look at before deciding on a partner for their child. The groom's family had these things to think about: Did she come from a good, religious family? (Religion played a strong role in Indian marriages). How are her manners and social skills? (The bride must represent the family in a high held manner). Is she respectful and is there anything about her past that will blemish the family name? (If she came off as disrespectful or had a bad reputation in the community, the groom's family would be looked down upon for her actions.) Would she make a good wife and mother? (Family and child rearing were crucial to most families). Does she want to stay at home or work after getting married? (Most families that could afford it wanted a bride to stay home and take care of children but some couldn't because of finances.) (Paul 1964:82).

The bride's family had to look at: Did he have the money to support the bride? (He needed to have a job that would be able to provide for their daughter and future grandchildren). Would he make a good husband and father in the future? (It was important for children to have a strong male role model). Did he come from a good family? (Because the majority of the time the bride moved in with her husband's family directly after the wedding.) Do the women of the household seem well cared for? (Parents wanted their daughter to be well cared for after leaving their home.) Is there enough room for another person and grandchildren? (Since they move in with their husband's family immediately, it was important to look at the amount of space they had for another family starting.)
What is the family’s reputation? (It will affect the Bride and her family’s reputation after marriage.) (Paul 1964:87).

Polygamy was popular in India within the upper class. Wealthy men are the only ones that can afford multiple wives. It is seen as a status symbol so the more wives a man had, the higher his status. Polygamy is against Hindu religion but it was still common in the majority of India. Within polygamous homes, there was usually a “queen” wife who is given a higher status and some authority over the other wives.
Polygamous marriages advantaged women because they were able to marry rich men. But it was a disadvantage to men because all the women were taken by rich men. Monogamy was more common in religious families, especially Muslim men. It was common in lower-class families because of status and affordability (Chaterjee 1972:101-138).


Because marriages were arranged based on wealth, love was not a priority. However, the Hindu religion stresses a bond between a couple which means a different kind of love between arranged couples. The number of love marriages is slowly increasing through time, especially with the college-educated. It was seen as a scandalous alternative to properly arranged marriages. Some would convince their parents to “arrange” their marriage to people with whom they had fallen in love. (Ostor, Fruzzetti, and Barnett 1982:93).


“Portable valuables," jewels or household items, that she controlled throughout her life were common. Goods or cash that went directly to the husband’s family became more common.
Anti-dowry laws were passed but are usually ignored even today. Particularly in urban areas, grooms' families would make high demands of a bride’s family and when the demands were not met, the bride would be murdered – which left the husband free to remarry and collect another dowry (Chaterjee 1972: 169).





Generally, weddings are large and involved relatives and friends of both the bride and groom.
The bride’s family usually hosts and pays for the ceremony, like in America.
The groom’s family usually hires a band and brings expensive gifts for the bride, but nothing as extravagant as what the groom receives (Sengupta 1972:17-32).





Household

The household is the basic residential unit where economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, and shelter are organized and carried out (Haviland 2008:219). The Indian household was the center of everyday life ("India-Family Life"). In the household, children grew and learned the culture of their society. Women cooked, made clothing, maintained small vegetable gardens, and cared for the young and elderly (Borooah 1994:60). Men ran the household and were the main income for the family ("India-Family Life"). The household was also where prayer and worship for Muslim Indians occurred (“Footermenu”).

The structure and size of the household depended on the wealth of the family ("Indian"). Geographical location also affected the materials used in building the structure ("Indian"). Here are examples of different houses within two different caste systems:

In the wealthier caste, households were very large and interconnected ("Indian"). These “mini-cities” were built with high brick walls to keep out enemies. The bricks were made of mud and then baked to create sturdiness ("Indian"). Most buildings within the walls were ordinary houses with rooms arranged around small courtyards ("India - Family Life"). Families could buy either a whole house or one room, depending on their wealth ("Indian"). Within the community, there were two or three public bathing houses, a town warehouse, and prayer rooms ("Indian"). Public bathing houses were very large, having a pool with stairs leading to the water ("India"). Bathing areas also contained small courtyards (“Indian”). The picture shows an example of what a bathing house may have looked like based on ruins found in India ("Indian"). Town warehouses contained storage for wheat and barley ("Footermenu"). Hindu households had prayer rooms that contained platforms for rituals. The prayer room was considered the most sacred place in the home. Picture - ("Indian")

In the lower castes, families did not have much wealth (Borooah 1994:61). Because of this, many families built their houses out of the resources in the area ("Indian"). Houses were primarily made from wood, straw, and bamboo (“India”). The houses were usually one room and had a dirt or grass floor ("Indian"). Geographic location also affected what materials the houses were made from ("Indian"). Families in the south near the equator made their houses from palm leaves and bamboo. Northern houses were made of stone to protect from the colder weather of the Himalayas ("Indian"). Picture - ("India Rich")


Family unity was very important to Indian culture (Haviland 2008:220). The Indians believed that togetherness and unity were more important than the house itself ("India - Family Life"). Decisions were made with the cooperation of all mature members of the family (Heitzman). Mature members consisted of the elders, sons, daughters, and wives of the sons. Adolescences and children were not included on decisions (Heitzman). Examples of decisions within a family include career choice, mate selection, and marriage (“India”).

The roles of the men and women were very different. While the men were the primary breadwinners of the family and traveled to work, the women were the primary house keepers (Kumari 1989:86). Indian women lived in the household, had relatively short lives, and had multiple children (Kumari 1989:88). Housewives were the non-working members of the family (Kumari 1989:89). It was their responsibility to cook and to clean. They were also responsible for nursing, bearing, and raising children (Borooah 1994:90). Because of their commitment to the household, the women did not earn money and were unable to contribute to the wealth of the family (Kumari 1989:90).

Indian households were run under Patrilineal lineage (Heitzman). The men ran the household. The family was based off the father’s family, not the mothers (Heitzman). Daughters were married off and lived with their husband’s family while wives were married into the family (Heitzman). Multiple generations often lived in one household ("India - Family Life"). For example, a household may hold the grandparents, their children, and then their children’s children. Being a joint family, the members shared all of the income, property, and responsibility ("India - Family Life"). Picture - ("Kudle").


The elders and children were seen as the most important in the households (Heitzman). Elders were the source of wisdom and knowledge. They were generally obeyed and treated with respect ("India - Family Life"). They were given dignity for living through life and for being very wise by learning from their life’s mistakes ("India - Family Life"). In contrast, children were supposed to learn from, listen to, obey, and respect their parents and elders (Heitzman). They were seen as non-knowledgeable and needed to be taught the ways of the people in order to become part of the society (Heitzman). Picture - ("BBC").

Authority within an Indian household is very important (Heitzman). Members of a family accept the authority of those ranked above them. In a patrilineal joint family, the authority is primarily found in the male figures (Heitzman). The eldest male, usually the oldest elder, has the most authority (Heitzman). The eldest woman has authority over her sons, but she primarily has power over the women of the household (Heitzman). Male sons are next down the line, followed by paternal daughters, wives, and then children (Heitzman). Interestingly, wives of the sons do not have authority over sisters of the sons (Heitzman). Because the sisters are not married into the family, they are seen as holding more true to the paternal family and are given more power (Heitzman). Unfortunately, once the sister is married out of the family, she then holds as much authority as the wives in her original family (Heitzman). Children have no authority until they are married (Heitzman). An example of the authority ladder is:
Eldest Male -> Eldest Female -> Sons -> Paternal Daughters -> Wives -> Children (Heitzman)

Society

The society in India is largely based on religion and is centered around the family. Three or four generations will live in one house. They live with the husband's family (Grihault). It is a patrilineal society where they inherit responsibility with age. The oldest male holds the authority. The society is stratified because there is a caste system and there is no chance of social mobility because one must marry into their own caste (Hoiberg).

Politics

The most reliable source of information for history of politics was the local Kashmir records which is not very reliable for such a small part of a largely diverse country (Murty). India began with several geographic challenges that led it to be composed of several different states but was eventually diversified by its different languages, castes that made uniting as one country very tricky.

During the period of 400 BC to 600 AD India was governed by democracy (Murty). The democracy was spread across several different states.These states originally had no over-lying central power that oversaw India. It was made of states, oligarchies, aristocracies and tribal republics (Murty). Such an organization of several states lead to a very complex country. In addition, every time in record that a monarchy in an area became to powerful it was dissolved and returned to state status (Gabriel). The structure of the diverse democracy had five overlying principles that can be compared to some of the 'unalienable rights' outlined by the democracy of the United States.

In the democracy of India during this period was outlined in five key characteristics. These included equality of rights, rejection of of power, choice of people to appoint officers, holding officers accountable and common debate and conclusion by the appointed officers (Murty). The equality of rights follows closely with a very proud American saying that "All men are created equal." Rejection of power or the right to veto what the government says or a law they try to pass clearly parallels the way the United States operates their government. The people of India also had the ability to chose their officers which follows closely with United States' right to vote in government officials to represent them. India also used these groups to come to decisions and debate issues to lead to make a greater good just the like the democracy of the United States today.




India maintained loose borders with separate, un-unified states. They maintained control of their individual states by means of hard power. They pushed back invaders by any means of violence (Gabriel and Showalter). They had a special weapon that replaced the chariot in India
(Murty).

Elephants with swords attached to their tusks, were covered with chain meal armor and had tusks with barbs to make these originally gentle animals into military machines (Gabriel and Showalter). This new military tactic defended India's borders to keep their people safe.



.



Era of Emperors Zai-Nul-Abidin (1420-1440)
Emperors were thought of as glorious conquering warriors and possessors of great riches (Gabriel).
One of the last great emperors in India was Zai-Nul-Abidin. He ruled in Kashmir. He maintained great influence by means of soft power and was in fact known for the spread of religious harmony throughout India (Wikipedia).

Post- Era Struggle

During the years after Zai-nul-Abidin’s rain, India was repeatedly invaded for their prospects of salt and rice.
These invasions included 1738 with the invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia, the 1750's when the British took over Bengal and in 1761 when Afghanistan invaded northern India (Murty). .









Religion

Hinduism accounts for the vast majority of religion in India from around 2500 B.C.E. to the present day. Hinduism's earliest form can be traced to the Indus Valley. At first Hinduism was a sacrificial religion in which male animals were sacrificed to stone idols resembling female goddesses. In 1700 B.C.E. a group known as the Aryans appeared in Northern India. From this group, the earliest Hindu text, the Rig Veda, emerged. Aryans worshiped may gods by making sacrifices, praising them, and praying to them for benefits in this life and in the after life. Modern Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Siva, and Rama have their origin in this era. Around 700 B.C.E. a new genre of oral literature appeared known as Upanishads (literally means to sit around). These teachings were transmitted orally to students at the feet of a master or guru. Upanishads were most often set in forest hermitages, and sometimes royal palaces. Concepts that emerged in Upanishads include the search for eternal life, reincarnation, and karma. Yoga became a way of attaining knowledge. Upanishads had major influence on contemporary Hinduism. Around 200 B.C.E. cults devoted to one particular god or goddess first appeared. The greatest contribution of this era is the path of devotion. Devotion (Seva) is seen to be where action meets knowledge. it combines the sacrificial systems with oral tradition and Vedic texts. In the fourth century C.E. the Puranas were composed. Puranas are written text that record historical material, cosmology and mythical narratives, devotional teaching and accounts of scared places to which one was encouraged to take a pilgrimage. Later Puranas tend to exalt one deity as supreme above the others. They were produced until about the 13th century when Muslim oppression of Hindus first started. It continued until the 17th century when the British first colonized India
(Sullivan 1-18).

Brahma: the creator god
Vishnu: the preserver of life. He manifests himself in human form to restore Dharma (the concept of an appropriate duty or morality) and to supervise the defeat of the Kauravan hoard (demons or devils constantly at war with men and gods)
Rama: Depicted in the Ramayana as having a similar purpose to Vishnu. He manifests himself in super-human forms seen to not really be whatever is appearing, but an unreal or surreal form of Rama himself.
Siva: seen to be the god one must offer devotion to, to attain freedom from rebirth.
(Nivedita 6-12).

The caste system in India is derived from Hinduism. The castes are seen to make up the different body parts of Brahma. Traditionally, the four casts; Brahman, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras make up the head, arms, thighs, and feet. The caste system is used in different ways in every geographic region and contains sometimes several more castes and sub-castes. The only groups that remain universally the same throughout all India are the ruling caste and the untouchables (those who do not qualify as members of a cast i.e. foreigners, illegitimate children, ect). Castes put restrictions on marriage, socio-politic order, interactions, and even diets (Cantlie 135-150).

Hinduism is often called not one religion, but several, possibly even thousands of distinct religions. This is because Hinduism has no one founder, no one supreme deity, no one prophet or holy man, no one religious text, and no one place of origin (Sullivan 9). It is an amalgamation of the beliefs and practices of thousands of different people groups. It is not possible for any one person to know all of Hindu doctrine, mythology or history. The things that remain constant are obviously the things that are seen to be of utmost importance to all people. They include the search for freedom from the cycle of rebirth, and ultimately eternal life. Hindus see worship as a means of creating Heaven on earth. The end goal of most practices of Hinduism could be seen as to make earth like heaven or to bring heaven to earth by becoming, in some form, the deity being worshiped.

Rituals

Rituals are used by human beings to interact within their community and gods (Inden 1990:235). However, in India, rituals or samskara, tend to focus on the major transitions in the life of an individual, such as birth and pregnancy, initiation or puberty, marriage and death. Rituals are used to show and express behavioral patterns, norms and values that are present in society. These can be broken down into four separate stages. Rituals begin with the phase breach, when any individual has broken a rule of behavior. This false behavior can turn into a crisis or conflict, threatening the unity of the group. Next, ritualized actions must be taken in order to address the conflict and how the participants’ behavior measures against religious morals. Ultimately, this should result in a restoration of peace and normality. In India, ritual performances are known for being long, elaborate events that are interactive through singing, dancing, costuming and staging (Glazier 1997:216). Rituals begin with Brahmin priests who lead in the recitation of mantras (“Indian Customs and Rituals”). By performing these rituals, the people of India believe they are pleasing God as he is worshiped in the form of an idol.

Many rituals regarding birth are performed during pregnancy to guarantee a healthy mother and a growing child (“Indian Customs and Rituals”). Some may even wear charms to keep demons or evil spirits away. Before giving birth, the father parts the hair of the mother three times to ensure the proper development of the embryo. After the child is born and the umbilical cord is cut, the father touches the baby’s lips with a gold spoon or ring dipped in honey and curds. The father also whispers “vak” or “speech” three times into the right ear and mantras are chanted to assure a long, prosperous life. As an infant, there will also be many other ceremonial rituals, such as the first time visiting a temple, the first feeding of solid food, specifically cooked rice and the piercing of the ears (“Life Cycle Rituals-India”).

Between the ages of six and twelve, young boys and their families will participate in an initiation ceremony, indicating his awareness to adult religious responsibilities. The family priest will instruct the boy to always wear a sacred thread over his left shoulder. This ceremony represents a new birth or being twice born (“Life Cycle Rituals-India”).

Although there are many different traditions among different caste systems and religions, Indian weddings are very elaborate and complex through clothing, decorations, etc. The exact date and time are chosen by the parents of the bride and groom who consult with an astrologer (“Indian Customs and Rituals). On the particular wedding date, the groom arrives on a white horse or limousine with family members, musicians and bearers of ornate lamps following him (“Indian Customs and Rituals”). The bride and groom represent the god and goddess or a prince coming to marry his princess proving how significant weddings can be (“Life Cycle Rituals-India”).

After an individual passes away, the family arranges ceremonies for the preparation of the body and the procession to the burning or the burial grounds (“Indian Customs and Rituals”). Cremation is the most ideal method for taking care of the dead, but infants are typically buried rather than cremated. During the funeral, the relative that is closest to the deceased, usually the eldest son, takes charge of lighting the pyre or beginning the cremation process. After the ashes and bones are collected, they are placed in a holy river. Once the funeral has ended, families mourn for ten, eleven or thirteen days and then eat a ceremonial meal together. Donations are given to charities and rice balls are offered to the spirit of the dead so that their soul will be calmed and not linger as a ghost, but pass through Yama, the god of death (“Life Cycle Rituals-India”).

In Bengal, Holi is a very significant festival celebrating the sexual rites of fertility. Holi symbolizes the death of one
year and the birth of another, connecting fertility, death and the renewal of life. The most important ritual of the festival is using red powder or ochre as red represents blood and can be seen as the life giving power or the renewal of life. Women mainly use this red powder for ceremonial purposes because of its sacredness to the female gender. For example, pregnant or menstruating women cover their bodies with this powder to warn men away and enhance their fertility. In marriage, the bride’s forehead is painted red to illustrate that she is forbidden to all men, but a sign and guarantee to her husband that she will bear his children. And after mourning the loss of someone, the widow will be painted red so that she is rescued from the contamination of death (Bhattacharyya 1975:119).

When looking back on the ritual aspects of the Indian culture, we can see that there isn’t much regarding infrastructure or media, technology, etc. but there is a major emphasis on the social structure and superstructure. Just as the father takes part in many of the birthing rituals, this shows the importance of the relationship between a father and his child. Also, the elaborate funeral ceremonies and mourning process illustrate the kind of pride that is taken in family life. As for superstructure, Indians’ values and morals are represented through many of their ritual performances. For instance, in the initiation ceremony, the boy’s awareness to adult religious responsibilities is indicated meaning that religion is extremely significant. Also, the Holi festival symbolizes Indians’ view towards fertility, death and the renewal of life and how important they can become.

Art

Art in India as of 1450 AD reflected a deeply spiritual culture, primarily consisting of the Muslim, Hindu, and Jain religions (Pal 1988:16). The mediums used were commonly stone, metal, ivory, wood, and occasionally a copper alloy or brass (Pal 1988:24). Different regions were influenced by the availability of certain materials as well as which religion was most prevalent at the time, and so the artwork varies. For example, the southern part of India employed a greater amount of wood, while the northern areas preferred to work primarily with stone (Pal 1988:16).
Central themes occupying Indian art were large ideas such as life, death, and procreation (Rawson 1966:9). The majority of the artwork is therefore found around temples and in temple construction itself. The architecture of the temples, though varying to a degree with respect to region, was often elaborate and intricately detailed (Pal 1988:19). Harder stones were used for the minute details while softer stones such as sandstone were used for general forms and images (Pal 1988:21). Popular depictions included snakes and deities, sometimes pictured together (Rawson 1966:20). Snakes were thought to have spiritual significance and shrines were built to honor their power. Gods and goddesses were often embodied as snakes, manifested with a cobra hood over their heads. These were called the Nagas and Naginis, male and female, respectively (Rawson 1966:19-20). Most of these figures and other deities are seated, as were images of the kings (Ray & Van Alphen 2007:167). The sculptures often appear to be disproportionate or in strange poses to viewers today because the sculptures were typically placed in niches on the outside of the temple walls. As they were meant to be viewed from an upwards angle, the change creates an awkward perspective (Pal 1988:21). In addition to sculptures, pottery was also often used to depict deities. The pots would be placed upside-down and the face of a god or goddess, typically Shiva or Vishnu, would be painted on the side (Rawson 1966:17).
Stones carved with scenes were also commonly in 15th century India. Two common forms were the veeragallu and the mastigallu, carvings picturing military and religious scenarios. A recent archaeological find discovered one of these stones, though much more rare as it showed both the veeragallu and the mastigallu together (The Times of India, 2010). This find exemplifies the strong influence of the religious culture among those in India. The religious portion of the carving shows a "bride-burning," a woman offering herself as a sacrifice after her husband died in battle (The Times of India, 2010). Dramatic as this may seem, sacrifices, both human and animal, were fairly typically in India for religious purposes (Rawson 1966:15).


Music

Music in India means a lot more than it does here in America. For thousands of years the Indian culture has been consumed with music. According to Emmons White in Appreciating India’s Music, “India from the earliest times music has closely associated with religion” (White 1971:7). White goes on to say “In Hindu mythology the various departments of life and learning are usually associated with different rishis, and so to one of them is traced the first instructions that men have received in the art of music.” Music was engrained in the Indian society because religion was such an important part in the culture and with religion came music. “No matter what the practicing faith of a musician might be, most acknowledge the music’s origin as a divine manifestation, a gift from God, which is a profound root of its affect. The Hindus will call this aspect of music Nad-Brahma, “sound as God,” or “the language of God.” The purpose of serious music, then, is to bring oneself in tune with the highest planes, and the practice of music is like a prayer. The musician is on a lifelong path (marga) which has spiritual overtones, mixed with yoga (“yoke”) of refinement, knowledge, and purification. Hindus would ad that this leads to mukti, or “liberation,” “release” (Ruckert 2004:18).

There are two primary music forms in India one is a written form, that we in America would consider “sheet music”, and then there is improvisation. Indian music uses different chords, rhythms and tempos than the music of the West. Much of the early Indian music was performed from memory and passed down from the guru. The guru (simply “teacher”) was a very important priest from the ancient Indian world and was looked upon for answers and help with many worldly and heavenly things like music. “In a more or less closed musical society, one’s guru was arranged in one’s early, formative years…a student’s connection to the music was through the guru since there was no other media from which one could learn” (Ruckert 2004:34).

Within the day there are certain periods for melody modes or ragas. Every two and half to three hours from six in the morning a new raga period exists. These ragas are to be played within their certain time frames for they have special reasons to be placed where they are. “The Megh Mallar raga, for instance, is supposed to produce rain and on one occasion, a dancing-girl of Bengal is said to have saved the crops in a time of drought, by singing this raga and causing rain to fall immediately” (Rosenthal 1929:11). Raga Music was also used to show praise and worship to many of gods and goddesses like Krishna and Radha.

Music within the Indian culture was also used to explain natural feelings and sacred texts/hymns. “The oldest scriptures in India are known as the Vedas, a word that literally means “knowledge….There are four Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva [which] are comprised of sacred hymns, poetic descriptions of gods and nature, rituals, and blessings” (Ruckert 2004:19). The nine moods or Navaras (pronounced “nuvvaruss”) are Karuna, Shringar, Vira, Hasya, Rauda, Bhayanaka, Vibhatsa, Adbhuta, Shanti. These moods range in meaning of sadness and love to disgust and peace. (Ruckert 2004:28).



There are many different kinds of instruments used in India that we do not normally see in North America. Indian instruments can be broke into three basic sections: drone instruments, melody instruments and percussion instruments (Ruckert 2004:66-74). The break down listed above has been around for hundreds of years because many of the instruments have either stayed the same or changed very little.


The melody instruments are the main instruments in many Indian songs of both the modern world and also of the ancient Indian world. The two main melody instruments of the Indian culture are the Sitar and the Sarod. “In the eighteenth century, the sitar developed from a mixing of the Persian tanpur and the ruda vina” (Ruckert 2004:69). These two instruments provide the overall sound of song and many times are played in songs that require no real words, only the “feeling” of words. The human voice can also be considered a melodic instrument and is often times used with other physical instruments to create a polyphonic sound. The greatest example of the human voice being used is with the syllable of om (said like ohm).

The last category of instruments would be the percussion instruments. The percussion instruments of India are some of the oldest and most unchanged instruments. “The midanga is considered generally to be the most ancient Indian drum” (Rosenthal 1929:28). Similar to the midanga is the tabla, which is a pair of drums instead of just singular drum. These percussion instruments are what keep the time of Indian music and give a different sound to many ancient hymns and songs.

Core Values

The values that shape India are almost pre-determined by the way society sets itself up, like Americans are today. In order to get a better understanding it is easier to make a comparison between us and India to truly make the connection.

As Americans we have two main values that really explain us. These are individualism and choice. If we look at our structures (infrastructure, social structure, and superstructure) we can very easily see that. Through the infrastructure we see our power of choice come into play through the variety of mass markets that are out there. We have so many things to choose from and it is up to us to make that choice. On the social structure we see social organizations and political organizations which allow us to voice our opinion which leads us to the individualism part. This is true for the superstructure too, we can individually choose our beliefs and ideas. Now that we have re-capped that we can see how this relates to India.

For India it is all about the group. Group decisions are made not to better the individual but to better the group. We see this in their economy. When they go out to do the hunting and gathering they are not only providing for themselves and their family, but for the entire group. Group decisions are also made in marriage usually love is not involved when these choices are made. Girls are usually married off very young and it is to someone that has already been picked for them. Even through marriage the group benefits from it. A dowry, or some kind of payment is made, and the female moves in with the male’s family (Hasan, 2005). Through this payment we see that the group is still coming first because one family is losing a family member so payment is made to make up for that. Family is always important no matter what. In the US we see that families value their individuality and own decision making, but in India it is completely different. Unity is very important, togetherness and unity are more important than the house itself. An underlying theme of unity has been generally recognized by historians in the exceptional continuity of the religious tradition of Hinduism and its powers of assimilation (Watson, 1975). Religion place a big role in India, God manifests periodically in different forms to guide the human race on the track of morality and righteousness (SarDesai, 2008). Family decisions are made on career choices, mate selection, and marriage. As we can see, India’s core values are to better the group and keep family the number one priority. Nothing is about individualism or being different, it is about being together and all being one.

History

India history from 1450 on is characterized by its religious and cultural values of its time. During the 1450 era India was ruled by sultanates and Hindu Raj puts. During this time period ancient Hindu temples and artwork were destroyed in raids by the Sultanates. India Being mostly Hindu at the time was taken over by Islamic conquests who’s goal was to convert the Hinduisms to Islam. But most Indians remained Hindu. India was very well known for its distinct resources such as the their beautiful art, gold, gemstones, and spices. These spices are actually what made the European powers come to India for.

The Portuguese arrived in late 16th century. They tried trade negotiations with the native Indians, but eventually British powers came to India in the 17th century; British laid down the law and actually began forcing the Indians to convert to Christianity. If the Indians refused to convert they would be killed. This all happened during the reign of the Mughal empire. The sultanates and Rajputs were defeated by Babur also known as the “tiger” (Babur, and W. M. Thackston 1996:34)The Mughal empire was known for its architectural abilities such as the Taj Mahal, this replaced the Destroyed Hindu temples and other damaged artifacts. Akbar “the great was introduced in this empire because of his idea of enlightenment to unite Muslims and non-Muslims. He united and gained alliances because he married a Hindu Rajput.



The Mughal empire would eventually fall and give way for the Maratha empire, General Aurangzeb’s death was the fuel behind the Maratha empire to really rise and become the official empire of India at the time. Eventually the empire would fall by the hands of Afghani army. The British ended the empire’s reign for good, and this was the last known empire of the India heritage. In 1857 the Indians rebelled against the British.


Everywhere the British tried to establish control the Indians would rebel against it. The British would use propaganda to get the Indians to think they are doing much more which gave the British the rights to attack the rebelling country. The British Raj was eventually established in India, the British adopted the Indian Caste system. Religious practices and sacred dances were destroyed or made obsolete during this time period. The India history itself was compromised when the British began educating the higher Indian classes. Teaching them false information about the India history and slowly changing how a lot of the Indians thought about their culture. Ghandi soon came into the picture to help save the Indian culture. He started the Satyagraha movement which started the India revolution against the British government. (Mishra, Pankaj,2004:78) Using soft power, Ghandi’s plan was to beat them financially and to not fight back physically. (Pandya, Jayant 2006:25) The plan eventually paid off and India had finally gained its independence from the harsh British empire. The British did wind up taking a good amount of India’s resources them. So financially India struggled for a few years before completely getting back on its feet and becoming its own country again.
Poster


Sim-Video


Sim-Summary

Our country of India started off in the first round as a medium power with a seven card to defend, but little power to attack any others. This confined us to just trade for cards to get food in the first round, as there was little else we could do. However, before the round even ended, the French stepped in and colonized us. Although this is not exactly the right time period for this (Britain had taken a firm grip of the country in the early 1800s), India was in fact colonized by a western power. For the rest of the round we produced cotton for the French in order to get them to feed us. Nobody starved at the end of the round, as France gave us enough food plus more to feed everyone.

Early in the second round we formed an alliance with Australia, in an attempt to gather enough allies to overthrow the French colonizers. We continued producing cotton for France, however China then stepped in and took over power from France. The French took away all the cotton we had produced. We continued to gather allies, with Indonesia and New Guinea joining the alliance. China is a more formidable country than France in terms of power, so it will take many allies to overthrow them. China fed everyone at the end of the round despite us having nothing to give them. India's population continues to grow quickly.

At the beginning of round three we were given a very high defending card, so as to throw off the colonizing country holding us down, but the card was not strong enough to overthrow China. This power card was meant to help simulate the point in history were India broke from from the reign of Great Britain, but we were not strong enough yet to gain freedom. The people of India grew tired of being oppressed and working for foreign countries, so decided to sit and not work, forcing China to either give in to our demands, or have us starve. This is very similar to the type of soft power that Gandhi used to help free the country. China eventually decided that they would feed all of us, including all the other countries and refugees that joined us, provided we went back to cotton production. We have now added Great Britain to our alliance. China fed everyone, so nobody has starved.

Our country is now large and poor, and full of unhappy citizens tired of being under the rule of another country. We have now gathered enough allies to attempt to overthrow China. With the help of all of our new allies, we barely defeat the Chinese and gain their attack card (an ace, possibly symbolizing India's rise to being a world power in the late 20th/early 21st century) and gained independence. China also left the food they were feeding us with in our country, so we have plenty to feed everyone along with the cards and land we gained back. We have little to no money, seeing as we had no way of making it in the time under China's rule. We were able to go and feed West Africa and keep them from starving, as they helped with our sit in. In the end we finished as a poor independent country with a few close allies.

Sim-Rules

Finalized Greetings:
Hello: Two fingers to the lips, bow head
Good-bye: Say "Good-bye All"

Proxemics: Keep normal speaking distance (4-6 ft)

Greetings Rule: When greeting others, men shake hands with men and women shake hands with women.
(Shaking hands with the opposite sex is uncommon due to religious beliefs.) Also, greet the oldest person first
since elderly are most respected, and always say farewell to each individual person.

Appropriate mobility to match transportation technology: Horses were a common mode of transportation, along with ships for trading goods.

Hard power/soft power: India is strongly a soft power country.

Felicia found in Rawson 1977:14 that the monsoon is vital to India because it represents life. This is shown in the fact that when monsoons fail to come, as they occasionally do, starvation and famine run across the parched land (Rawson 1977:14).

-Rule #1: At the beginning of each round, we’ll gather in a circle much like in this picture and “pray” in our own
special way for a good monsoon season.


-Rule #2: To represent the different castes of India, we can wear different Bindis (the dot-like decorations worn
in the middle of the forehead). The Upper caste will wear jewel-like ones, the middle class will wear just flat
stickers, and the lower caste won’t have any at all.

For the language section, Amanda C. discovered that Sanskrit is the most common language spoken in India. However, there are so many other languages and dialects spoken that communication is often difficult among the people (Macdonell 1956:12).

-Rule #3: There will be no direct communication between members of different castes. Members of the same
caste may speak freely, but if it is necessary to speak outside of a caste, the message must be relayed through
“interpreters” who will be identified by wearing a special Bindi.

For our media/technology section, Alec T. found that most of India’s technology came from Chinese ideas and inventions (Gopal 1999:319)

-Rule #4: We will have one person at all times watching the Chinese culture to see what kind of technological
advances they are making so that we can do the same thing.

Madison found on www.indhistory.com that boys have a so-called “second birth” which are much like present-day Bar Mitzvahs after which they wear a thread around their waist. Along with this, Elizabeth found that men hunted and gathered food while women stayed home and cared for children and basically did whatever the men allowed them to (Dube 2001).

-Rule #5: Only men who are wearing a thread around their waist will be allowed to go to other cultures to trade cards for food.

For the subsistence section, Jessa discovered that the main crops were rice, barley, fruits, and cotton (Sen 2004:3). The source also stated that India exported goods such as these to the Middle East by sea.
Exchange in India, researched by Mitch, was found to play a vital role in growth of trade and commerce between the West and the far East since it lies directly on the route between them (Agarwala 1). With the West, India traded spices, drugs, curios, and textiles (Agarwala 45). Indian cloth, as well as other high-quality artisan products such as gems, steel, and hardwood, were quite attractive to foreigners (Washbrook 87-111). In the early 1900s, India had prominent economic relations with the western world, especially Canada. They exported anything from coffee and tea to oils and ores. They imported the western way of life through machinery, metals, cars, and chemicals (Ganguli 256).

-Rule #6: When trading with other cultures, our main goods to trade are crops, textiles, gems, steel, hardwood,
coffee and oils. Our main trade partners are the Middle East (mainly just crops) and the Western world, Canada in particular (basically everything and anything).









About India. Delhi, India: The Publications Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Government of India, 1958.

Agarwala, Prakash Narain. The History of Indian Business: A Complete Account of Trade Exchanges from 3000 B.C. to the Present Day. New Dehli: Vikas Publ. House, 1985. Print.

Alam, Muzaffar. The Languages of Political Islam India 1200-1800. India. C. Hurst & Co. 2004. Print BP63.I4 A64

Auboyer, Jeannine. Daily Life in Ancient India, from Approximately 200 B.C. to 700 A.D. New York: Macmillan, 1965. Print.


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